Millions of years ago the planet earth, a very tiny part of the universe, did not exist. It was about 4,600 million years ago that the planet earth and the other planets were formed around Sun that was till then just another star in the Solar system.

It happened when Gasses and other small particles of matter first came together and stick to each other to form a cloud. Gradually the cloud became a ball that began to heat from the inside, causing the matter to melt; and forming a crust on the outside. Gasses and steam that erupted from the hot liquid center formed water and atmosphere. Then the crust cooled and hardened and our planet earth came into being. The crust’s parts which were lying high became the continents and water accumulated in low-lying parts formed oceans.

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The shape of the Planet Earth

Throughout history, the shape of the planet earth has intrigued scientists. Even before the Middle Ages, people believed that the planet earth was flat. Although Pythagoras was the first person to announce that the planet earth is spherical, people did not accept his view and the concept of the planet earth being flat persisted till about 300 years ago. In fact, in those times, people did believe that if they sailed too far in one direction, they would fall off the earth.

It was Sir Issac Newton, a great English scientist, who was the first to claim that the planet earth is not ‘spherical’, but ‘oval’. Today it has become an established fact that the planet earth is not a perfect sphere; it is slightly flattened at the poles, and it swells at the equator because of the rapid spinning of the planet earth. In recent years the scientist have come to know that there is another small bulge at the North Pole; resultedly, the earth is now considered to be pear-shaped.

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The Planet earth’s crust

The outermost surface of the planet earth is termed the ‘crust’; its (the Crust’s) thickness varies from about 40 kilometers to about 10 kilometers.

It is about 40 kilometers thick beneath continents and 10 kilometers thick beneath oceans; it possesses only about 1 percent of the earth’s volume and ends at the next layer known as the mantle. The crust joins the mantle along a boundary called Mohorovicic discontinuity. Scientist often arranges the upper portion of the mantle, that at the top is as rigid as the crust, with the crust and call it the lithosphere.

The crust of the planet earth, contrary to the belief that it is a huge shell of solid rock, is in fact broken into 20 or so huge plates called tectonic plates which are always shifting due to which the cracks present in the crust keep widening and narrowing. Sometimes, when molten rock pushes up from the layer underneath the crust through these cracks, volcanoes are formed. It is very important to mention here that the planet earth is the only planet with its crust divided into moving plates.

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Mantle

The earth’s mantle, that comprises approximately 70% of earth’s volume, is a 2,900 kilometers thick rocky shell. It is made up of two layers and lies under the crust.

The thickness of the outer part of the mantle is about 600 kilometers. The temperature of the mantle is 2000 degrees Celsius. It is composed of magma, the molten rock, that has the consistency of a hot tar. The inner layer of the mantle is more solid but not rigid, than the outer layer; it is like plastic and moves very slowly.

The core of the Planet Earth

The core, the heart, of the planet earth consists of a fluid outer core and a solid inner core. The outer core, having temperatures up to 3000 degrees Celsius, is made up of chiefly liquid iron that flows in the massive corkscrew-like currents, which produce the earth’s magnetic field.

The inner core of the planet earth is hotter than the outer core; its temperature can scale up to 5500 degrees Celsius, exuding tremendous pressure due to which the iron crystals in the inner core form a solid ball.

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Unique Feature of Earth as a planet

The planet earth is unique in the solar system as it is the only planet so far that has ever had a life of any kind. This may, of course, change in the future, but so far the earth is the only planet that supports life.

On earth life is possible because most of its surface is covered with water and atmosphere protects the planet from most of the sun’s dangerous radiation.

The atmosphere, the layer of gasses surrounding the planet earth, is made up of about 77 percent Nitrogen and about 21 percent Oxygen. Precisely, the planet earth is unique in that it is warm-but not boiling; cold-but not freezing all the time. Water covers three-fourth of its surface and its atmosphere possesses Oxygen; that is why in the solar system it is the only planet that has a life.

The Sun is just one of 100 billion stars arranged in a shape like fried egg. This huge star city is called the galaxy. The location of the planet earth in the solar system, galaxy, and Universe exhibits the difference between the lush, vibrant planet that the earth is and a barren wasteland, devoid of life.

The planet earth, just one planet whose distance from the Sun is just right to support life, is the third planet out from the sun, between Venus and Mars. Normally, on an average, the distance of the planet earth from the sun is of 148.8 million kilometers; however, the distance varies depending on the time of the year. The planet earth remains closest to the sun on January 3^rd and it is known as perihelion; it is farthest away from the sun on July 4, and this is called aphelion.

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Formation of the Universe and Big Bang Theory

Scientists believe that the Universe began about 13 and 18 million years ago. According to some scientist, the Universe came into existence with an awesome explosion that they have named ‘the Big Bang’.

The Big Bang Theory deals with the explanation (of) what happened at the very beginning of the universe. Scientists are firm in their belief that the Universe came into existence at a specific point in time, and before that there was nothing. During and after that moment the Universe came into being, and the Big Bang Theory is considered an effort to explain what occurred during, and after that moment.

The universe, that is believed to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, and infinitely dense speck of matter, began to expand and burst in a gigantic explosion between 10 and 20 million years ago. This massive explosion called the Big Bang, hurled matter in every direction. Within a split second were created all the forces that shape the universe and all forms of matter.

The universe created by the Big Bang is still expanding and codling even to this day; the explosion was so massive that material is still hurtling away in all directions at amazing speeds.

According to some theorists, after the Big Bang, the universe was hotter than the Sun; there were no stars, but a burning soup of hydrogen nuclei and electrons that speeded around on their own.

As space stretched, the universe cooled that allowed the hydrogen nuclei to capture electrons and made, in the process, that is called neutral hydrogen. The early universe, therefore, was opaque, obstructing the release of light like morning fog.

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Rivers are originated high in the mountains where rain water or melting snow accumulates and makes tiny streams which in turn join together as they flow downhill and as more streams join the flow, the river becomes bigger and wider.

Rivers, the moment they get to the plains, slow down and they start turning and twisting forming meanders. As rivers approach the end of their journey they again, most of the times, split into small channels before they finally merge in the Ocean.

One of the most obvious facts about rivers that can be witnessed by any person having eyes is that rivers are always moving. It is not the case that rain always runs directly of the land into the rivers; sometimes, it immerses into the ground and comes out again lower down in the course of the river through holes called springs.

Rain is also frozen in snow, and when snow melts it makes the river run more faster. So from this very information it can be easily come to the conclusion that without rain every river is going to halt running. The natural equation is: ‘the more it rains, the fuller the river will be, and the faster it will run. However, as ‘too much of anything is bad’, too much rain can result in the overflow, causing flood, of rivers. Floods usually and naturally happen after heavy rains when the winter snow melts in spring.

A river starts turning and twisting, as it comes near the sea, forming the shape of a horseshoe called meanders. Some of the rivers meander more dramatically because when a river penetrates the plains and faces an obstacle, it starts moving more slowly than it does before and may simply curve around it. As rivers flow around this bend, the current gets strongest at inclines to pick up river bottom and soil from the bank and get it downstream.

On the inside of the bend the current is slower and stores gravel, sand and other solids. Since the erosion on the outside of the bend continues to happen, the storage of materials on the inside of the bend also continues, forming a meander, of twist in the river.

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Rivers change

As a river always flows downwards from its source from highland areas to lowland areas, through an upper, middle and finally lower course, it changes quite a bit in its journey towards the Ocean.

The upper course of river, that is close to its source, sprawls through mountain gorges forming  waterfalls and rapids. It is so fast and powerful that it carries away rocks, making valleys wider and deeper.

Its middle course start when a river enters the plain and its speed slows down. It starts flowing in smooth channels made from its own deposited material and starts meandering. As ‘the river starts winding across valley in loops and twists, tributaries join it.

When the river comes near the ocean its lower course starts in which it becomes even broader and slower. At its ends, the river may drop more sediment and break into small branches to form a delta. The mouth of the river, where it finally joins the sea, is known to be its estuary. As a river travels along its course, both river and the landscape around it changes.

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Role of Rivers in shaping the land

Running water of rivers, which play an important role in shaping the land, wears away the land over years forming deep valleys along the river. The valleys became wider because of the twists and turns of the river. These valleys, with the passage of time, become broad plains.

Plains are also built by sediment and silt which rivers carry down from mountain and deposit them. In this way rivers shape the land both by the wearing down and building up process. It is important to note here that the Indus River has pierced its way through the Himalayas shaping the mountain, and showing that water is a terrifically powerful force.

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Rivers of Ice: Glaciers

Glaciers, rivers of ice, moves so slowly that they can take a year to cover the distance that a human being can walk in few minutes. Icebergs are pieces of a broken piece of a glacier floating in water.

Glaciers are created high in mountain valleys and in polar regions where the snow falls but never melts. The heavy snow crushes the layers below into ice, that starts to glide slowly downhill as a glacier.

Since a glacier moves slowly, it grinds against the walls and the ground of the valley making it wide and deep. Glaciers cover approximately six million square miles that is about three percent of the earth’s surface.

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Waterfalls

Waterfalls, one the most breathtaking sights on the earth, are created as a river plunges over a ledge of rock, it thunders downwards in a plume of forthy white before going on its journey.

Waterfalls generally happen where the river flows over a band of hard rock. The charging water wears away the soft material on the surface and leave the harder layer below untouched. They are seen where a river bed drops abruptly and nearly vertical.

Waterfalls are termed differently according to their nature. A waterfall generally may also be called a falls. It may be called a cataract when large volumes of water are involved. Cascads are waterfalls of small height and less steepness or a series of small falls. Rabids, a type of waterfalls are still gentler stretches of river that display turbulent flow and white water.

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Formation of Waterfalls

Waterfalls are also formed in different ways. Some are formed by the action of glaciers; when the glaciers melt, rivers flowing along the channels, which are created by the smaller glaciers, have to dip downwards to penetrate the main river, that create waterfalls. Example of this kind of waterfalls is in Yosemite National Park in America. Waterfalls are also created by alternating layers of softer and harder rock. It suggests that the weaker rock downstream wears way faster than the harder rock upstream. The river becomes lower downstream and the river has to plunge over a steep cliff, forming a water fall.

Angel Falls is the highest waterfall in the world that plunges almost 960 metres down. It is located in Venezuela. Other famous waterfalls are Niagra Falls located on the border between the United States and Canada, and the Victoria Falls in Africa.

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There are many International Environmental Organizations like World Wildlife Fund (WWF) that are working for the protection of our environment. The biggest among them is the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources or the IUCN that was founded in 1948 with its headquarters in Switzerland.

IUCN

IUCN has, according to the latest information, brought together 84 states, 111 government agencies, 764 NGOs (Non-Government Organizations), 83 international organizations, and about 10,000 experts and scientists from all over the world.

IUCN, that is made of three parts- its member organization, its scientific commissions and its professional secretariat to preserve nature, conserve natural wealth and to utilize natural resources carefully. Only then can we make sure that we pass on the earth’s beautiful and charming gifts to the children of future.

IUCN maintains an international list of species facing extinction, published bearing the name of the Red Data Book, in which the species are classified into different categories according to the risk they face. Each Red Data Book generally deals with a specific group of animals or plants, whether they are raptiles, insects or mosses. Red Data Books are now being published in many different countries.

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UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)

It was founded by the United Nations as a special agency to deal with issues affecting the environment. It was set-up in June 1972,, as a direct result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, and is headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP has six regional offices and various country offices.

UNEP leads and encourages partnership among nations and people in caring for the environment, by inspiring, informing, and enabling peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising the welfare of future generations.

The activities of UNEP cover a wide range of issues related to atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. One of its most famous projects is the development of the Solar loan programme that assisted about 100,000 people in getting finance for solar power systems in India.

Another significant project of UNEP was the Marshland Project in the Middle East that warned the international community to the annihilation of the Marshland.

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World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and its Aims

When Sir Julian Huxley, the renowned British biologist, went to Africa for a research trip. What he did sea there, shook him completely. He was dismayed by the unclenched destruction of nature and the hunting of endangered species.

When Sir Huxley returned in 1960, he shared his concern, that many species would become extinct it the condition persists in Africa, with fellow scientist and other prominent personalities. Finally they agreed to begin an international organization with the scientific, technical and financial resources to conduct and fund conservation efforts across the globe.

In 1961, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was created. Sir Huxley and Sir Peter Scott, the famous ornithologist who created the Panda logo, were among the founder members of World Wildlife Fund.

World Wildlife Fund, over the following decades, has developed into the largest privately financed international conservation organization in the world. The World Wildlife Fund, in 1986, by changing its name became the World Wildlife Fund for Nature. In more than 100 countries, backed by team of scientists and policy experts in national offices across the World, World Wildlife Fund field staffs work on various projects.

The aims of the World Wildlife Fund are to halt the destruction of the earth’s natural environment and to prepare a future in which all human beings can live in harmony with nature. World Wildlife Fund does this by protecting all forms of life on earth, and making sure that the earth’s natural resources like water and forests are not consumed faster than they can be renewed. World Wildlife Fund encourages the people to curtail the amount of waste they normally produce, and to cut down on pollution.

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Panda as the Logo of World Wildlife Fund

When, in 1961, the World Wildlife Fund was being created, a giant Panda, Chi-Chi, arrived at the London Zoo that became the inspiration for the panda in WWF’s world’s recognized logo. Sir Peter Scott, one of WWF’s founders, who had drawn the first logo said “we wanted an animal that is beautiful, is endangered, and tone loved by people around the world. We also wanted an animal that symbolized all that was disappearing in the natural world.

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Greenpeace

It is an international organization that was set up to make the people of the world aware of the America use of the Aleutian Island as a nuclear test site and the dangers of nuclear testing. It was established in 1971 in Vancouver, Canada.

After accomplishing its objective of protest against nuclear testing in the Aleutian Island, Greenpeace widened to include the protection of the ozone layer by curbing the use of ozone depleting chemicals, and the prohibition of the dumping of waste in the Oceans.

Greenpeace also aims to protect ancient forests and the environment by banishing the use of hazardous chemicals that damage humans, animals and plants. It seeks to halt the hunting of whales that face extinction organism into nature.

Through the movement of Greenpeace began in 1970, Greenpeace international or GPI, as it presently exists, was set up in 1971 with its headquarters in Holland. GPI remains at the centre of a closely knit network of national and regional offices.

Once a campaign is chosen, it becomes the job of the GPI campaign Director to plan and execute the campaign. Some national offices can run their separate campaigns too. For instance, the UK has a campaign to prohibit the use of incinerators to burn rubbish, while Canada is pursuing with a campaign to save ancient forest.

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Major ports in India have been classified into three categories by the Waterways Authority of India: major, minor and intermediate ports. Being one of the biggest peninsulas in the world India coastline covers the area of 7516.6 km. It has 13 major ports, 200 notified minor and intermediate ports, and all are situated in the nine coastal Indian State: Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Bengal.

Out of 13 major ports of India, 12 are Government run ports and one, Ennore port of Chennai, is a corporate one and is located at Coromandel Coast Tamil Nadu along with private Krishapatnam Port.

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12 Major Ports in India

Vizag Port (Andhra Pradesh)

Vizag or the port city of Visakhapatnam, one of the India’s largest port and the oldest shipyard, is established on the southeast coast of India in Andhra Pradesh. It is the only natural harbour in the Bay of Bengal. Vizag is situated among the great hills of Estern Ghats. Krishnapatnam port is a privately built deep water port in Andhra Pradesh.

Mormugoa Port (Goa)

Situated in South Goa it is the main port of Goa. It holds the position or one of the leading iron ores and raw materials exporter in India. Alongwith the beautiful city of Vasco da Gama and International Airport Dabolin Mormugoa Port is one of the major attractions of Goa. As the natural harbour of Goa it holds the distinction of being one of India’s earliest modern ports.

Kandla Port (Gujarat)

Located on the Gulf of Kutch near first special economic zone in India as well as in Asia. It is the hub for major imports like petroleum, chemicals and iron. Grains, salts and textiles are exported from this port. It is one or the highest earning ports in India. Another port situated in Gujarat is Mundra Port that is India’s largest private port.

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Panambur Port (Karnataka)

Situated near SurathKal railway station in Dakshine Kannada district of Karnataka, This Port is known as the New Mangalore Port. It is a deep water all weather port. Major commodities like manganese, granite stones, coffee and cashew are exported from here and the main imports comprise timber logs, LPG, petroleum products and cargo containers.

Cochin Port (Kerala)

The Cochin Port, the major port on the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean Sea route, is situated on two islands of Willingdon and Vallarpadam. This port has the largest container transshipment facility in India. The port is equipped with maritime facilities such as Cochin Refineries and Kochi Marina. For its traditional spices, Kochi is famous all over the world.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Maharashtra)

Situated on the mainland of Konkan area, Maharashtra, it is the King Port of Arabian Sea at the West coast that handles a large volume of International container traffic and domestic cargo traffic. This port’s major exports include machinery, vegetable oils, and chemical. It is the largest container port among major ports in India. Formerly it was known as Nhava-Sheva Port.

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Mumbai Port

Situated in the mainland of West Mumbai on the West Cost, this is the largest among ports in India. With its four Jitters it deals in bulk cargo traffic for handling Liquid chemicals, Crude and petroleum products. Mumbai Port’s International container traffic is directed to the new and big Nhava Shiva Port.

Port Blair (Andaman)

Situated at the Juncture of the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, Port Blair, the youngest sea port among ports in India, is the capital city of Andaman Nicobar Islands. This Island port is connected to Indian mainland through flight and ship. This port is the principal hub for shipping in the Andaman Islands. It is known for its scuba diving, water sports and virgin beaches.

Tuticorin Port (Tamil Nadu)

One of the largest container terminals in India, the artificial deep-sea port of Tuticorin is a all-weather port that gets a large volume of International traffic. It is a best port for maritime trade and pearl fishery on the Bay of Bengal.

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Chennai Port

The largest port in the Bay of Bengal and the second largest port in the country, Chennai port handle automobiles, a variety of cargo containers, coal terminals comprise of lighthouses, Intra port connectivity, Pipelines and railway terminus.

Paradip Port (Orissa)

Situated at the conjecture of river Mahanandi and the Bay of Bengal the Jagatsinghpur district of Orissa, Paradip Port is a deep water artificial port of East Coast. Though a national highway connects the port with the Indian road networks, it has its own railway system and cold handling part.

Haldia Port (West Bengal)

Located near the Hooghly River of West Bengal Calcutta or Haldia Port is a very important trade center for Kolkata, which gets bulk cargoes of chemicals, petrochemicals and oils. This port also functions as a base of Indian Coast Guard.

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