India has ‘Tropical Monsoon’ type of climate. The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means the seasonal reversal of the winds during the course of the year.

The whole of India has a tropical monsoonal climate since the greater part of the country lies within the trophies, and the climate is influenced by the monsoons. The position of the mountain ranges and direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two main factors that determine the climate of India. Alternating seasons is the chief characteristic of India’s Climate.

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Factors Affecting the Climate of India:

Latitude: India lies between 8 ⁰ N and 37 ⁰ N latitudes. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India, thus making the southern half of India in the Torrid Zone and the northern half in the Temperature Zone.

Himalaya Mountains: The Himalayas play an important role in lending a sub-tropical touch to the climate of India. The lofty Himalaya Mountains form a barrier which effects the climate of India. It prevents the cold winds of north Asia from blowing into India, thus protecting it from severely cold winters. It also traps the Monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the sub-continent.

Altitude: Temperature decreases with height. Places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains.

Distance from the sea: With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of climate.

Geographical Limits

Western Disturbances: The low-pressure systems that originate from the eastern Mediterranean region in winter and move eastwards towards India passing over Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan are responsible for the winter rain in northern India.

Conditions in the Regions Surrounding India: Temperature and pressure conditions in East Africa, Iran, Central Asia and Tibet determine the strength of the monsoons and the occasional dry spells. For example, high temperatures in East Africa may draw the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean into that region thus, causing a dry spell.

Conditions over the Ocean: The weather conditions over the Indian ocean and the China Sea may be responsible for typhoons which often affect the east coast of India.

Jet Streams: Air currents in the upper layers of the atmosphere known as jet steam could determine the arrival of the monsoons and departure of the monsoons. The Scientists are studying the jet streams and how it may affect the climate of India but much remains to be learned about this phenomena.

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Who are Rohingya Muslims?

An ethnic group of Muslims that is often called as the most persecuted minority in the world, Rohingya Muslims are a majority of people who speak a dialect of their own that is different than the language spoken in the country of Myanmar living in the western province of Rakhine. About 1.1 million Rohingya living in the Southeast Asian countryof Myanmar are not considered among the 135 official ethnic groups and have been rejected citizenship since 1982 thus effectively leaving them stateless. Also, the Rohingya Muslims dwelling in the state of Rakhine have been restricted any movement without government permissions and is considered as one of the poorest states that lack basic amenities and opportunities.

Where are they from and why are they not considered?

According to sources, Rohingya Muslims have been living in the area since 12^th century. As stated by the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation, the Rohingya Muslims have been in the Arakan area since time immemorial, where Arakan is referred to the Rakhine state of Myanmar. As per Human Rights Watch, the significant amount of migration from India to today’s Myanmar and Bangladesh during the years of British rule (1824-1948) was considered internal since Myanmar was administered by the British as a province of India. Negatively viewed by the majority, the migration of labourers after independence was considered illegal and hence refused the citizenship to the Rohingya majority, as per the 2000 report of Human Rights Watch. After the independence of Myanmar from the British rule, according to the Union Citizenship Act, the ethnicities could entitle citizenship. But as per a 2015 International Human Rights Clinic report, Rohingya Muslims were not included. Initially, Rohingya Muslims were given citizenship for those who had families living at least for two generations, and during this time, many also served in the parliament. But after the military coup in 1962 in Myanmar, there were drastic changes for the Rohingya. The opportunities for education and jobs were restricted since they were only given foreign identity cards. Again in 1982 a new citizenship law was passed as per which, the Rohingya Muslims were stateless. As a result, their rights were limited to marry, travel, work, study, practice their religion or access health services.

Where have the Rohingya Muslims fled to from Myanmar?

From the 1970s, the crackdowns enforced on the Rohingya have resulted in hundreds of thousands to move in to the neighbouring Bangladesh, Thailand, Malaysia and various Southeast Asian countries. According to the reports of the United Nations, over 168000 Rohingya Muslims have left Myanmar since 2012. Also, according to the International Organisation for Migration, since October 2016, over 87000 Rohingya Muslims have sought shelter in Bangladesh due to the violent break out the previous year. Many RohingyaMuslims have also tried to enter Malaysia by means of a boat through the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. Over a 1000 people have been killed and 500000 Rohingya Muslims have left for the neighbouring countries since the beginning of violence in Myanmar.

What is ARSA?

ARSA is the abbreviation of Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army that was previously known as Al-Yaqeen Faith Movement that states its obligation to defend, salvage and protect the Rohingya. The ARSA group of people says to do “with our best capacities as we have the legitimate right under international law to defend ourselves in line with the principle of self-defence. Inspite of the rejections stated by ARSA, the Myanmar government considers the community a terrorist organisation.

What is the solution to the overall challenge of the Rohingya?

Through all the bad times, there is a scope of hope for the Rohingya Muslims since the formation of the Advisory Commission on Rakhine state. Kofi Annan, former secretary general of UN, is supposed to head the nine-member commission. The Nobel laureate Aung San Suu Kyi is no doubt not answering the awkward questions asked in favour of Rohingya Muslims. People are questioning the Nobel laureate for her help to those suffering. The state of Rakhine is increasingly segregated now and the commission is now the sole hope for the Rohingya. The recommendations and solutions put forward by the commission either will change the game or will bring more trouble.

Bhakra Nangal Project

It is on Sutlaj river in Punjab. It is dam highest in India with a height of 226 meter. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake.

Mandi Project

On Beas in Himachal Pradesh.

Chambal Valley Project

Hirakud Project

A rock is a solid made up of a bunch of different minerals. Rocks are generally not uniform or made up of exact structures that can be described by scientific formulas. Scientists generally classify rocks by how they were made or formed.

Must Read: Minerals: India’s Mineral Resources

Three Major Types of Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by great heat and pressure. They are generally found in the Earth’s crust where there is enough heat and to form the rocks. Metamorphic rocks are often made from other types of rock. A sedimentary rock can be changed, or metamorphosed, into a metamorphic rocks such as slate or gneiss. Metamorphic rocks include marble, anthracite, soapstone, and schist.

Igneous Rocks – Igneous rocks are formed by volcanoes. When a volcano erupts, it spews out hot molten rock called magma or lava. Eventually, the magma will cool down and harden, either when it reaches the Earth’s surface or somewhere within the crust. This hardened magma or lava are called igneous rocks. Igneous rocks include basalt and granite.

Sedimentary Rocks – Sedimentary rocks are formed by years and years of sediment compacting together and becoming hard. Generally, something like a stream or river will carry lots of small pieces of rocks and minerals to a larger body of water. These pieces will settle at the bottom and over a really long time (perhaps millions of years), they will form into solid rocks. Sedimentary rocks are shale, limestone, and sandstone.

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The Rock Cycle 

Rocks are constantly changing in what is called the rock cycle. It takes millions of years for rocks to change.

1. Melted rocks or magma is sent to the earth‘s surface by a volcano. It cools and forms an igneous rocks.
2. Next the weather, or a river, and other events will slowly break up this rocks into small pieces of sediment.
3. As sediment builds up and hardens over years, a sedimentary rock is formed.
4. Slowly this sediment rocks will get covered with other rocks and end up deep in the Earth’s crust.
5. When the pressure and heat get high enough, the sedimentary rock will metamorphose into a metamorphic rock and the cycle will start over again.

Space Rocks 

There are actually some rocks that come from space called meteorites. They may have different elements or mineral make up than a typical earth rock. Typically they are made up mostly of iron.

Have a Look at: Plateau

Interesting Facts about Rocks

• The word “igneous” comes from the Latin word “ignis” which means “of fire.”
• Ores are rocks that include minerals that have important elements such as metals like gold and silver.
• Sedimentary rocks form layers at the bottoms of oceans and lakes.
• Marble is a metamorphic rocks formed when limestone is exposed to high heat and pressure within the Earth.
• Layers of sedimentary rocks are called strata.

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Erosion is the wearing away of the land by forces such as  water, the wind, and ice. Erosion has helped to form many interesting features of the Earth‘s surface including mountain peaks, valleys, and coastlines.

There are many different forces in nature that cause erosions. Depending on the type of force, erosions can happen quickly or take thousands of years. The three main forces that cause erosion are water, the wind, and ice.

Must Read: Water Resources of India

Erosion by Water

Water is the main cause of erosions on Earth. Although water may not seem powerful at first, it is one of the most powerful forces on the planet. Here are some of the ways that water causes erosion:

• Rainfall – Rainfall can cause erosions both when the rain hits the surface of the Earth, called splash erosions, and when raindrops accumulate and flow like small streams.
• Rivers – Rivers can create a significant amount of erosions over time. They break up particles along the river bottom and carry them downstream. One example of river erosion is the Grand Canyon which was formed by the Colorado River.
• Waves – Ocean waves can cause the coastline to erode. The sheer energy and force of the waves cause pieces of rock and coastline to break off changing the coastline over time.
• Floods – Large floods can cause erosions to happen very quickly acting like powerful rivers.

Also Read: Water Cycle

Erosion by Wind

The Wind is a major type of erosion, especially in dry areas. The Wind can erode by picking up and carrying loose particles and dust away (called deflation). It can also erode when these flying particles strike the land and break off more particles (called abrasion).

Erosion by Glaciers

Glaciers are giant rivers of ice that slowly move carving out valleys and shaping mountains.

Also Read: Monsoon, Floods and Droughts

Other Forces

• Living organisms – Small animals, insects, and worms can add to erosions by breaking up the soil so it is easier for the wind and water to carry away.
• Gravity – The force of gravity can cause erosions by pulling rocks and other particles down the side of a mountain or cliff. Gravity can cause landslides which can significantly erode an area.
• Temperature – Changes in temperature caused by the Sun heating up a rock can cause the rock to expand and crack. This can cause pieces to break off over time and lead to erosions.

Human activity has increased the rate of erosions in many areas. This happens through farming, ranching, cutting down forests, and the building of roads and cities. Human activity has caused about one million acres of topsoil to erode each year.

Have a Look at: Minerals: India’s Mineral Resources

Erosion Control

There are things that can be done to limit the amount of erosions caused by human activity. This includes planting trees around farmland to protect it from the wind, moving herds around so that grasslands will grow back, and planting new trees to replace the ones cut down.

Interesting Facts about Erosion

• The word erosion comes from the Latin word “erosion em” which means “a gnawing away.”
• Scientists estimate that the Colorado River has been eroding the Grand Canyon for many millions of years.
• Wind erosions can cause huge dust storms.
• The fastest glacier ever moved over seven miles in three months.
• Fossils in sedimentary rock are often uncovered by erosions.

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