India is one of the top five countries in the world with favourable water resources (others are Canada, Brazil, Russia and Congo). Among the total water resources of the country, Indian rivers constitute the major share.The water in these rivers is used for various purposes including agriculture, production of electricity, storing water in dams and so on. Indian rivers are mainly divided into two types:

1. HIMALAYAN RIVERS
2. PENINSULAR RIVERS

HIMALAYAN RIVERS:

As the name suggests, these rivers originate from Himalayan Mountains. The sources of water are rainfall and melted snow. As they come from high altitudes they flow with high speed and have larger and deep courses. INDUS, GANGES, and BRAHMAPUTRA along with their respective tributaries are the main Himalayan Rivers.

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THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM:

SOURCE: The Indus River rises in Tibet near Manas Sarovar Lake. Flowing westwards, it enters India in Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir.

COURSE: It flows through the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh andPunjab in India then enters Pakistan and flowing further south reaches the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.

TRIBUTARIES: Zaskar, Nubra, Shyok, and Hunza are the tributaries in India. Ravi, Chenab, Sutlej, Jhelum, and Beas are the tributaries in Pakistan.

CHARACTERISTICS: The slope is very gentle and with 2900 km length, Indus River is one of the longest rivers in the world.

THE GANGES RIVER SYSTEM:

SOURCE:The Ganges River originates in Gangotri glacier as Bhagirathi and joined by Alaknanda at Devprayag, It turns into Ganga.

COURSE: The Ganga River enters plains in Haridwar and from there it flows eastwards enlarged by the tributaries joining from left and right. The river divides in West Bengal and the distributary Hooghly flows southward to reach the Bay of Bengal. The main river enters into Bangladesh and joins with Brahmaputra river.It covers the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.

TRIBUTARIES: Yamuna River joins Ganga at Allahabad as a right bank tributary. Ghagra, Gandak and Kosi Rivers arising from Nepal Himalayas join as left bank tributaries. Chambal, Betwa and Son rivers from central Highlands join as right bank tributaries. It covers the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

CHARACTERISTICS: The length is 2500 km and the slope is almost steep in the Himalayas and gentle in the plains. With more number of tributaries, the basin of the river is very huge.

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BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM:

SOURCE: The Brahmaputra River originates in Tibet to the east of Manas Sarovar Lake.

COURSE: The Brahmaputra River mostly flow outside India from the point of its origin and in the middle course, enters Arunachal Pradesh and later into Assam. Then, it flows eastwards into Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra River is called as River Padma.

TRIBUTARIES: In Arunachal Pradesh Dibang, Lohit and Kenula Rivers are its tributaries.

CHARACTERISTICS:The length of the river is 2900 km and is one of the longest rivers of the world.

PENINSULAR RIVERS:

These rivers are confined to the peninsular region and are dependent on rainfall for water. Unlike Himalayan Rivers, these rivers are shorter with small basins. NARMADA, TAPI, GODAVARI, KRISHNA, CAUVERY and MAHANADI are the main rivers.

NARMADA BASIN:

It originates in Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh and flows towards the west to join the Arabian Sea. It covers the states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

TAPI BASIN:

It rises in Madhya Pradesh and covering the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra join the Arabian Sea.

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GODAVARI BASIN:

It is known as DAKSHIN GANGA due to its area covered (over 1500 km). The Godavari River originates in Nasik in Maharashtra and covers the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Flowing eastwards, it joins in the Bay of Bengal.

KRISHNA BASIN:

It rises near MAHABALESHWAR in Maharashtra and covering an area of 1300 km, it flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh and reaches the Bay of Bengal.

CAUVERY BASIN:

Cauvery River originates in the Western Ghats and covering an area of 760 km, it reaches the Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu. The states covered are Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Besides the above other rivers include Mahi, Sabarmati, Subarna Rekha and so on.

CONCLUSION:

All the rivers in India, despite their location, are considered holy by the people. There is a proposal of interlinking all the Indian rivers in order to utilise the waste flowing water in drought areas.

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Generally, while travelling we observe that the Indian soils colour, texture changes from one region to the other. We cannot grow all type of crops in any soil. Different crops require different soil conditions. Especially, in the agricultural country like India with various crops, nature of the Indian soils play a very important role in planning the types of crops to be grown.

Soils have organic components like humus (formed from buried living organisms) and inorganic components like sand, silt, and clay. When the organic and inorganic components are in equal proportions, then the soil is said to be fertile. For agricultural purposes, we need fertile soils. Where the soils lack fertility, fertilizers are used.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS IN INDIA:

The different types of soils found all over India are:

1. ALLUVIAL SOILS
2. BLACK COTTON SOILS
3. RED AND YELLOW SOILS
4. LATERITE SOILS
5. ARID SOILS
6. FOREST AND MOUNTAIN SOILS

ALLUVIAL INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS:

These are very fertile soils. These are mostly formed by river depositions. The important food crops of India are grown in these soils. With intense cultivation, the areas of these soils are densely populated.

DISTRIBUTION: ALLUVIAL SOILS are distributed in the states of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and west Bengal which are drained by Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river systems. Besides, these are also present in the coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu which are the delta regions of Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery Rivers.

CROPS GROWN: Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Cereals, Pulses and many commercial crops are grown.

BLACK COTTON INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS:

These are black in colour and have good moisture retaining capacity. When dry, they produce cracks and as the name suggests these soils provide the best conditions for growing cotton. Good rainfall and dry conditions simultaneously exist here.

DISTRIBUTION: The Black cotton soils cover most of the Maharashtra state and are distributed in some parts of Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

CROPS GROWN: Cotton (intensively and extensively).

RED AND YELLOW INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS:

The Red and Yellow soils occur in the regions of low rainfall. They are less fertile and need external sources like fertilizers and water supply. Areas of these soils exhibit the typical Indian agricultural situation.

DISTRIBUTION: These soils are distributed in the dry parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

CROPS GROWN: All types of crops grown in alluvial soils can be grown here but with the extensive external support of water and fertilizers.

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LATERITE INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS:

LATERITE soils are found in the regions of both high rainfall and high temperature. These are low in fertility but are suitable for plantation and horticultural crops due to high moisture.

DISTRIBUTION: Laterite soils are found in most of the Kerala, parts of Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.

CROPS GROWN: TEA and COFFEE are grown in Kerala, Karnataka, and Assam. Besides, Horticulture (growing fruits and vegetables) is also practised.

ARID INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS: These are also called as desert soils which occur in the desert areas of the country. These soils lack humus and moisture due to excess heat.

DISTRIBUTION: ARID soils are present in the desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat and in some low rainfall plateau regions.

CROPS GROWN:There is almost no cultivation in these soils.

FOREST AND MOUNTAIN INDIAN SOILS:

CHARACTERISTICS:They contain an excess of humus and less minerals and that’s why only Big trees can be grown here.

DISTRIBUTION: As the name suggests, these soils are found in all the forest and mountain regions of the country like Himalayan regions, hilly areas and so on.

CROPS GROWN: Cultivation is not possible in these soils due to lack of inorganic content.

CONCLUSION:

Due to excess cultivation and mining, the soils are highly damaged nowadays which resulted in Soil erosion. Preventive measures are to be taken to protect the soils thereby the country.

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Asia

Asia is the largest of the seven continents of the earth both area wise and population wise. Area is 44,936,000 sq. km. It is separated from Europe by the Ural Mountains in the West. The continent is bounded by the Arctic Ocean in the North, the Indian Ocean in the South, the Pacific Ocean in the East, and the Mediterranean Sea in the South-West.

The highest point is Mt. Everest (8852 m.) and the lowest point is Dead Sea (395 m. below the sea level). Important fountain ranges are Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindukush, Elburz, Caucasus, Pamirs, Kunlun, Urals, etc. Highest peaks are Everest (8852 m.), Kanchenjunga (8598 m.) etc.

Image Credit Daniel Feher

Largest lakes are Aral Sea, Baikal, Balkhash, Caspian Sea, Dead Sea etc. Major rivers are Amur, Yangtze, Brahmputra, Euphratus, Ganges, Hwang Ho, Indus, Irrawaddy, Lena, Mekong, Ob, Salween, Tigris etc.

The Plateau of Tibet is the largest and highest in the world and is known as the Roof of the world. Asia is the birthplace of major religions of the world – Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, Taoism, etc.

The population of Asia constitutes 62 percent of world’s population.

Africa

It is the second largest continent of the world. It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea in North-West, Red Sea in the North, Indian Ocean in the South, Arabian Sea in the East and Atlantic Ocean in the West. Area is 30,221,532 sq. km., which is about 20.4% of the world’s total land area. Its northernmost point is Cape Blanc (in Tunisia) and the southernmost point is Cape Agulhas (in South Africa).

Its highest point is Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m.) in Tanzania the lowest point is Lake Assal (153 m below sea level) in Djibouti. Important mountain ranges are Ahaggar, Atlas, Drakensberg, Tibesti, etc. Important deserts are Sahara, the Kalahari and the Namib Desert; Sahara is the largest desert of the world.

Important rivers are the Nile, the Zaire, the Niger and the Zambezi. The Nile is the longest river in the world. Important waterfalls are the Victoria Falls on Zambezi and Boyoma Falls on Zaire River.

Population is more than 900,000,000 which is about 14% of the world’s total population. Many Languages are spoken in Africa. Arabic is spoken by the maximum along the Swahili, Bantu, Zulu, English, etc.

Climate is predominantly equatorial type and tropical grassland type, as almost the entire Africa lies in the Torrid Zone.

Largest lakes are Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. From Victoria originates the river Nile.

Four largest countries in the decreasing order of areas are Sudan, Algeria, Zaire, and Libya. Four most populous countries in descending order are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Zaire.

The three points where Africa almost touches Eurasia are Gibraltar, Suez, and Bab-el-Mandeb.

The country having highest death rate and least life expectancy in the world is Sierra Leone, which is in Africa only.

Important tribes are Bantus, Berbers Hausas, Masai, Pygmies, Hottentots, Bushmen, Tuaregs, Kikuyus, etc.

North America

It is the third largest continent of the world. It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the West, Atlantic Ocean on the East, Arctic Ocean on the North and Caribbean Sea and Panama Canal in the South.

Important mountain ranges are Alaska, Aleutian, Appalachians, Brooks, Cascade, Coast, Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Sierra Madre, etc. Highest peak is Mt. McKinley (6194 m.). Lowest Point is the Death Valley (86 m. below sea level). Largest lakes arranged from West to East are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Out of these only Michigan lies entirely in USA. Others are shared by USA with Canada.

Important rivers are Colorado, Columbia, Mackenzie, Mississippi, Missouri, St. Lawrence, etc.

Important dam is the Hoover dam on Colorado River. It is the highest dam in the world. Area is 24,490,000 sq. km.

Its population is more than 514,600,000. Diverse climatic types are found in North America. Important languages are English, Spanish and French.

The major part of Canada has Taiga and Tundra types of climate. Wheat is the most important crop here.

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South America

It is the fourth largest continent of the Earth. It is situated West of Atlantic Ocean, East of Pacific Ocean, South of North America and North of Antarctica.

The longest mountain range of the world, Andes, is located on the western coast of South America. The highest peak of America is Mt. Aconcagua (6959 m.).

The largest river of the world, Amazon, flows through South America. The highest waterfall of the world, Angel Falls, is in Venezuela in South America. They are on Orinoco River. The highest freshwater lake of the world, Titicaca, is in Bolivia in South America.

Major deserts are Atacama in Chile, and Patagonia in Argentina. Llanos and Campos are the Savanna grasslands in South America.

Selvas are the equatorial rainforests of Amazon basin. Cinchona trees are found in South America which is used to make quinine, the medicine used to cure Malaria.

Though the official language in most of the countries is Spanish, the official language of Brazil is Portuguese.

Countries in descending order of size are Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Columbia etc. Countries in descending order of population are Brazil, Columbia, Argentina, Peru, etc.

Trans-Andean railways connect Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. Kourou, the French satellite launching station is in French Guyana in South America. The Driest place on earth is Iquique in the desert, Chile.

Europe

The Second smallest continent after Australia (area-wise), while population-wise, Europe is at the second spot after Asia.

It is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean in the North, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the South, the Atlantic Ocean in the West and Ural mountains in the East. It is separated from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar.

Important mountains are Alps, Apennines, Balkans, Carpathians, Caucasus, Pyrenees, Urals, etc. The Highest peak is the El’brus (5633 m.). Major Rivers are Danube, Dnieper, Don, Elbe, Po, Rhine, Rhone, Seine, Thames, Tiber, Volga, etc.

Major religions are Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

The climate is mild and generally humid in the West and North-West. Mediterranean type in South end cool humid with cool summers in the east.

Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Albania are collectively called Balkan states. Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark are collectively known as Scandinavia. The world’s northerly capital is Reykjavik of Island.

Australia

Australia is the smallest continent of the world. It lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. The tropic of Capricorn runs almost through middle of this continent. Australia was discovered by Captain James Cook, an English seaman, 1770.

Most of Australia is dry. The Eastern, North-Eastern and South-Western parts of the country come in the way of winds from the sea and thus receive very heavy rainfall.

The Gibson, the Simpson, the Great Victorian and the Great Sandy deserts constitute the Great Australian Desert. The highest peak of Australia is Mt. Kosciusko. Largest lake in Australia is Eyre.

Australia is mainly an agricultural country. Wheat is the most important food crop. A variety of fruits-both temperate and tropical, ager also grown.

Australia has considerable mineral wealth. It has large reserves of coal, iron-ore, bauxite, manganese and tin. Some petroleum and natural gas is also found.

Australia makes several products from its agriculture and animal raw materials. They are cotton and woolen textiles, sugar, condensed and powdered milk, butter, cheese and meat. Australia has the largest number of sheep in the world. Marine is the most important breed of wool producing sheep.

B.Sc. M.A. Ph.D.: It is an interesting acronym for the clockwise arrangement of the Australian coastal cities. The cities are Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, and Darwin.

The Great Barrier Reef: It is the world’s longest coral reef, it is located in North-East of Australia.

The Australian States in decreasing order of population is New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and Western Australia. The largest State of Australia is Western Australia. The Australian cities in decreasing order of population are Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane.

Australasia stands for Australia and New Zealand. The biggest city in New Zealand is Auckland, while the capital is Wellington. The first European to discover New Zealand was Able Tasman.

Antarctica

Antarctica is the fifth largest continent of the world. It is at south pole mostly ice covered and uninhabited by humans. However one can find rich wildlife there. Area of Antarctica is around 14 million sq. km.

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The climate of India resolves into six major climatic subtypes; their influences give rise to the desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest, and Indian Ocean island territories that flank the Indian subcontinent. Regions have starkly different—yet tightly clustered—microclimates. The nation is largely subject to four seasons: winter (December to February), summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October and November).

India’s geography and geology are climatically pivotal: the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect a culturally and economically break-all monsoonal regime. As Earth’s highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayan system bars the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer.

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Though the Tropic of Cancer — the boundary between the tropics and subtropics — passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable: epochal droughts, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters are sporadic but have displaced or ended millions of human lives. There is widespread scientific consensus that South Asia is likely to see such climatic events, along with their aleatory unpredictability, to change in frequency and are likely to increase in severity. Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level rises and the attendant inundation of India’s low-lying coastal areas are other impacts, current or predicted, that are attributable to global warming.

Climate-related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat.

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India is home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained winter snowfall. The nation’s climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush  mountains in Pakistan, prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India’s rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four climatological seasons:

• Winter, occurring from December to March. The year’s coldest months are December and January, when temperatures average around 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) in the northwest; temperatures rise as one proceeds towards the equator, peaking around 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) in mainland India’s southeast.
• Summer or pre-monsoon season, lasting from April to June (April to July in north western India). In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April; for northern regions, May is the hottest month. Temperatures average around 32–40 °C (90–104 °F) in most of the interior.
• Monsoon or rainy season, lasting from July to September. The season is dominated by the humid southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South India typically receives more rainfall.
• Post-monsoon or autumn season, lasting from October to November. In north western India, October and November are usually cloudless. Tamil Nadu receives most of its annual precipitation from the northeast monsoon season.

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