Renaissance: It is a name given to the Revival of Learning, which started in Italy in the early 14^th century and slowly spread throughout Europe in the late 15th century. It was a cultural movement that affected areas, such as art, literature, education and spread of science and technology.

The Glorious Revolution: A bloodless revolution in England in 1688-89, the Glorious Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the unpopular King James II and declaration of William of Orange (a Dutch) and his wife Mary, daughter of King James as joint sovereigns of England.

The American Revolution: It is the name given to the struggle by which England’s 13 colonies in North America declared their independence. The declaration of Independence was issued on July 4, 1776. Its author was Thomas Jefferson.

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The French Revolution: It is the name given to the struggle which swept away the Old Regime in France, as well as the fundamental changes which resulted from that struggle. The immediate cause of the French Revolution was the bankrupt condition of the French Treasury under Louis XV and Louis XVI. On July 14, 1789, the revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, the state prison for political prisoners that symbolised the king’s despotism. The fall of the Bastille marked the end of the monarchy. The King was beheaded on the guillotine in 1793 on charges of treason. A new constitution was adopted in 1795.

Industrial Revolution: It donates a series of changes in the economic conditions of England in the 18^th and 19^thcenturies brought about the invention of various kinds of machines that could be used for the industrial progress of the country, such as steam engine, spinning and weaving machines; the industrial revolution took place not only in England but also in other West European countries and the USA.

Russian Revolution: It was one of the most significant events of the 20^th century; main causes were: discontent towards the autocratic rule of Nicholas II, the new Czar; special privileges enjoyed by the upper class; and miserable conditions of the labourers and factory workers. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized powers in Petrograd (now Leningrad) on November 7,1917. Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. In 1923, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being.

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The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: This revolution took place as a result of public discontent due to the policies of Matthias Rakosi, head of the Communist Party and the Hungarian government. The revolution witnessed large scale participation of students and workers. A new government under Janos Kadar came into being.

China’s Cultural Revolution: It occurred due to the conflict between the radicals and moderates in the Communist Party with Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party, supporting the radicals. The radicals accused the moderates of falling to follow communist principles.

Islamic Revolution in Iran: The revolution was a result of the hostility of old-fashioned religious leaders and public towards economic and social reforms introduced by Mohammad Reza Pahlevi, the last Shah of Iran. Shah’s policies led to fierce fighting and rioting which the government could not control. In February 1979, a revolutionary government took over under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini. Iran was proclaimed an Islamic Republic.

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Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel slavery that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries after it gained independence and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery in the United States had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

Slavery begins in the America

The first slaves in the American colonies arrived on a Dutch ship in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Over the next 200 years, around 600,000 more slaves were brought to the American colonies, most of them to work the tobacco and cotton fields.

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Where did the slaves come from?

Slaves were brought over from the continent of Africa. Most of them came from the west coast of Africa where the main ports for the slave trade existed. The conditions on the slave ships were terrible. Often slaves were “packed” tightly in the ship’s hold where they were chained up and unable to move. Many slaves died during the trip due to disease and starvation.

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Slave Codes

The colonies established laws regarding slaves called slave codes. Some of these laws detailed the punishment for slaves who tried to escape. Other slave codes made it illegal to teach a slave to read, to help a slave to hide, and to pay for a slave to work. Slaves were not allowed to have weapons, leave their owner’s plantation, or lift their hand against a white person.

Abolitionism

After the American Revolution, many northern states outlawed slavery. By 1840 most slaves who lived north of the Mason-Dixon Line were set free. Many people in the north felt that slavery should be illegal in all the United States. These people were called abolitionists because they wanted to “abolish” slavery.

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Slave States and Free States

The slavery in the United States became divided between slave states in the north and free states to the south. When new states were added, one of the major issues was whether the new state would legalize slavery or not. When Missouri wanted to become a state, many people were upset because it was a slave state. In order to even things out, Congress admitted Maine at the same time as a free state. This was part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

Underground Railroad

Slaves escaped from the South to the North by using the Underground Railroad. The Underground Railroad was a network of homes, people, and hideouts that helped slaves to make their way in secret to the North. Around 100,000 slaves were able to escape this way between 1810 and 1865.

Civil War

When Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the southern states were afraid that he would outlaw slavery. They seceded from the United States and made their own country called the Confederacy. This started the Civil War. Eventually, the North won the war and the southern states rejoined the Union.

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Emancipation Proclamation

During the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln gave the Emancipation Proclamation which declared that the slaves in the South were free. Although, this did not free all the slaves immediately, it set the precedence for all slaves to be set free.

The 13th Amendment

In 1865, the 13th Amendment outlawing slavery was added to the U.S. Constitution.

Interesting Facts about Slavery in the United States

• The international slave trade was outlawed by Britain in 1807 and the United States in 1808. However, slavery was still legal and slaves were smuggled into the country up until the end of the Civil War.
• According to the U.S. Constitution, slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person when the state’s population was counted to determine how many Congressmen represented the state.
• Some slaves were treated well by their owners, whiles others were treated horribly. They were sometimes beaten, whipped, branded, burned, and imprisoned.
• Children of slaves were owned by the slave owner. They were often sold to other owners and the parents had no say.
• There were free black people who lived in the South before the Civil War. Some of them even owned slaves.

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Evidences of cultural history of India goes back to thousands of years ago, India was home to the Indus Valley civilization, one of the world’s oldest civilizations. In the 300s and 200s BC, the Maurya Empire ruled the land. It became one of the largest empires in the world. Years later, the Golden Age of India would take place during the Gupta dynasty. Lasting from 319 to 554 AD, the Gupta dynasty produced new developments in science, great art, and advanced culture.

With the rise of Islam in the Arab nations, it began to spread into India. During the 10th and 11th centuries the Turks and the Afghans invaded India and ruled as the Delhi Sultanate. Years later the Mughal Empire would rise to power and rule the land for over 300 years.

In the 16th century, European explorers began to enter India. Britain eventually took control of India. In the early 1900s India began to fight for independence from Britain. Led by Mohandas Gandhi, non-violent protests were made against the British. After many years of struggling, India was granted independence from Britain in 1947.

The country was later divided up into India and Pakistan. Later East Pakistan became a third country, Bangladesh. India and Pakistan have had strained relations over the years including both countries testing nuclear weapons.

India does have significant problems including poverty, corruption, and overpopulation. However, the country has recently seen strong economic and technology development.

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History of India Before beginning of Common Era (BCE)

• 3000 – The Indus Valley civilization is established in Northern India and Pakistan.
• 2500 – Large cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro develop.
• 1700 – The Iron Age begins in India.
• 1500 – The Aryan peoples arrive from Central Asia. The Indus Valley Civilization collapses. The Vedic period begins. The oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism are written.
• 520 – Buddhism is founded by Siddharta Gautama.
• 326 – Alexander the Great arrives in Northern India.
• 322 – The Mauryan Empire is founded. (Important event in the History of India )
• 272 – Asoka the Great becomes emperor of Maurya. He expands the empire greatly.
• 265 – Asoka the Great converts to Buddhism. He implements many reforms in the government.
• 230 – The Satavahana Empire is established.

History of India after begining of Common Era (CE)

• 60 – The Kushan Empire gains control of Northern India. Southern India is controlled by the Satavahana Empire.
• 319 – The Gupta Empire takes control of much of India. The rule of the Gupta Empire is a time of peace and prosperity. Many advances are made in science and the arts during this time.
• 500 – The decimal numeral system is invented in India.
• 554 – The Gupta Empire begins to collapse.
• 712 – Islam arrives in Northern India with the Umayyad Caliphate.
• 1000 – The Ghaznavid Empire invades from the north.
• 1210 – The Delhi Sultanate is founded.
• 1221 – Genghis Khan leads the first invasion of the Mongols in India.
• 1398 – The Mongols, led by Timur, invade Northern India.
• 1498 – Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrives in India. He is the first European to reach India by sea. He establishes trade between Europe and India.
• 1527 – The Mughal Empire is established by Babur. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1556 – Akbar the Great becomes the Mughal Emperor. He will expand the empire to include much of the Indian Subcontinent. The arts and literature flourish during his reign.
• 1600- The British East India Company is granted a charter by Queen Elizabeth I to have exclusive rights to trade with India.
• 1653 – The Taj Mahal is completed in Agra. It is built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his of wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• 1757 – The East India Company defeats Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1772 – Warren Hastings is appointed the first Governor-General of Bengal.
• 1857 – The Indians rebel against the rule of the British East India Company.
• 1858 – The British Empire takes over the East India Company. The British Indian Empire is established.
• 1877 – Queen Victoria claims the title the Empress of India.
• 1885 – The Indian National Congress is formed in an effort to gain independence for India. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1911 – The capital city is moved from Calcutta to Delhi by the British government.
• 1920 – Mahatma Gandhi begins his campaign of non-violence against the British government. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1930 – Gandhi leads the Salt March against the British salt monopoly.
• 1942 – The Quit India Movement is launched by the Indian National Congress.
• 1947 – India becomes an independent nation. The Muslim state of Pakistan is established in the north. Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Prime Minister of India. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1948 – War breaks out between India and Pakistan over the border land of Kashmir.

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• 1948 – Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated.
• 1950 – India becomes a republic.
• 1966 – Indira Gandhi, the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, is elected prime minister.
• 1971 – India goes to war with Pakistan over the creation of the country of Bangladesh from East Pakistan.
• 1974 – India detonates its first nuclear weapon. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1984 – Indira Gandhi is assassinated.
• 1972 – India signs the Simla Agreement with Pakistan.
• 1996 – The Hindu nationalist party, the BJP, becomes the major political party for first time against Congress.
• 2000 – The population of India passes one billion people.
• 2002 – Tensions mount between India and Pakistan over Kashmir.
• 2004 – A large Indian Ocean earthquake causes a tsunami wave that hits India killing over 10,000 people.

Here is a detailed history of how Sri Lanka has been seen in the political scenario. Maithripala Sirisena has now won the presidential elections.

1956 – Solomon Bandaranaike was elected as the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. He made Sinhala the only official language. More than 100 Sri Lankan Tamils people were killed after the Tamil members of parliament protested.

1959 – On September 25, 1959, Solomon Bandaranaike was shot by Talduwe Somarama, a Buddhist monk. He succumbed to injuries the next day.

1960 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike becomes first woman Prime Minister in the world. She was sworn in on July 21, 1960, after her United National Party won the elections.

1965 – Opposition party wins the elections and it tries to reverse the nationalisation.

1970 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike re-elected and she brings back Sinhalese nationalism.

1977 – LTTE was formed.

1983 – ‘Black July’ riots erupt in Sri-Lanka; about 64,000 people were killed.

1987 – Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which was intended to end the civil war between Sri Lankan Tamil nationalists and LTTE, signed.

1988 – Nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) protests against the Sri Lanka-India agreement.

1990 – Second Eelam War breaks. East Province taken over by Sri Lankan Forces after heavy fighting. The LTTE continue to kill civilians in the Eastern province.

1991 – LTTE suicide bomber kills Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, in Tamil Nadu. He was instrumental in bringing the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord.

1993 – An LTTE suicide bomber kills Ranasinghe Premadasa, the third President of Sri Lanka during a May Day rally.

1994 – President Kumaratunga again initiates peace talks with LTTE.

1995 – The third Eelam war breaks out after a suicide squad attacked two naval vessels in Trincomalee killing 12 soldiers.

1999 – A female suicide bomber attacks a police station in Colombo targeting the head of the terrorism unit, Mohammad Nilabdeen.

2000 – The European Union criticises both the Tamil Tigers and security forces concerning the human rights situation in Sri Lanka.

2003 – The Sri Lankan government and the LTTE hold peace talks and agree on a ceasefire.

2005 – Rajapaksa elected for the first time.

2006 – The political killings, child soldiers, abductions, and clashes between the government and LTTE creates tension around the country.

The Trincomalee massacre of students happened in 2006. It was considered to be act of state terror. Vankalai massacre of four minority Sri Lankan Tamils. It was also considered to be act of state terror.

2007 – At least 28 people, which includes 14 cadres of the LTTE, die in clashes between the security forces and the Tamil Tigers in September.

2008 – Government blames LTTE after 12 civilians killed and 100 injured over a suicide bomb attack. Government launches massive offense ending the 2002 ceasefire agreement.

May 2009 – On May 18, 2009 Velupillai Prabakaran was killed by the Sri Lankan army. The war between the Tigers and the Sri Lankan military reaches its bitter end and the Tigers decide to silence their guns in the interest of Tamil citizens.

March 2009 – Vinayagamoorthy Muralidharan (Karuna), former deputy leader of the LTTE joins Rajapaksa’s cabinet.

2010 – Mahinda Rajapaksa re-elected. He promises to restore an independent National Human Rights Commission along with other commissions.

2011 – United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon was appointed to monitor the government’s implementation of Human Rights.

2012 – Rajapaksa government dismisses UN report which states that Sri Lanka intimidated UN members investigating abuses at the end of the civil war in 2009. UN blames itself for failure during Eelam war climax. The former Sri Lankan Army Chief, Sarath Fonseka freed after two and a half years. Sri Lanka was in the same state when it came to ensuring justice to the victims of numerous Human Rights violations.

Jan 2013 – Rajapaksa dismisses Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake after finding her guilty on three offences including financial irregularities.

Feb 2013 – On February 19, 2013 a series of photographs showed Velupillai Prabakaran’s 12- year son Balachandran hit by bullets by a British channel’s documentary. The incident created controversies against Sri Lanka’s armed forces conduct in their final stage of operation against the Tamil Tiger rebels. However Rajapaksa government denied shooting anyone.

Aug 2013 – The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay says Sri Lanka was showing signs of heading in an increasingly authoritarian direction.

Sept 2013 – Tamil National Alliance (TNA) wins election at the Northern provincial council.

Nov 2013 – Sri Lanka hosts the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) but political heads of India, Canada and Mauritius skips the meeting.

2014 – President Mahinda Rajapaksa doesn’t allow the UN to investigate the war crimes during the Tamil Tiger insurgency.

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The collapse of the Soviet Union started in the late 1980s and was complete when the country broke up into 15 independent states on December 25, 1991. This signaled the end of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States.

Mikhail Gorbachev Becomes General Secretary

Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Soviet Union in 1985. When he took over the Union economy was in bad shape and his idea was to reform the economy and modernize the political situation in the country.

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Glasnost and Perestroika

There were two main platforms of Gorbachev’s reform. The first he called Glasnost. Glasnost allowed more freedom of speech and openness in government. Government officials would be held accountable to the people for their actions. Although Glasnost was a good thing for the people, it also allowed people to protest and the media to report on issues for the first time. Many of the outlying states used this new found freedom to express their desire for independence.

The other major reform was called Perestroika. Perestroika meant “restructuring”. Gorbachev meant to restructure the Soviet economy to work more efficiently. He allowed some private ownership and released some of the tight control the government had on the economy. However, the people and economy of the Soviet Union were used to the government doing everything. Things got worse before they got better.

Baltic Region

With the new found freedom of Gorbachev’s reforms, some outlying Soviet states began to rebel. The first states to demand their freedom were the Baltic states of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia.

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Nationalist Movement Spreads

Soon more states wanted their independence including Armenia, Moldova, Ukraine, and Georgia. The central government of the Soviet Union began to feel the pressure of so many states wanting independence.

Attempted Takeover of the Government

With the communist government on the verge of collapse, Soviet hardliners decided to take action. In August of 1991 they kidnapped Gorbachev and announced to the world that he was too sick to govern. They would be taking over. When the Soviet citizens began to protest, the hardliners called in the military to shut them down. However, the soldiers refused to shoot and arrest their own people. Without the military to back them up, the takeover had failed.

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The Soviet Union Breaks Up

On December 24, 1991 the Soviet Union was dissolved. At the same time Mikhail Gorbachev announced his resignation. The Soviet Union divided up into 15 separate independent countries including:

• Armenia
• Azerbaijan
• Belarus
• Estonia
• Georgia
• Kazakhstan
• Kyrgyzstan
• Latvia
• Lithuania
• Moldova
• Russia
• Tajikistan
• Turkmenistan
• Ukraine
• Uzbekistan

Facts about the Collapse of the Soviet Union

• By international law, Russia was considered the successor state of the Soviet Union. This meant that it kept the nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union’s seat on the Security Council of the United Nations.
• Many of the old Soviet Union states still have strong economic ties with each other.
• Some of the new countries have democratic governments while others are still under authoritarian rule.
• One of Gorbachev’s reforms was to limit the consumption of alcohol in an effort to reduce alcoholism in the Soviet Union.
• Boris Yeltsin was the first President of Russia after the break up.

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