As recorded in the Vedic texts the Ancient Indian Educational System with the residential hermitage of the seer serving as a school remained the same for a long time. It was only in the Gupta period that big centers of learning like modern universities with different faculties, extensive buildings, libraries and facilities for communication began to be founded. However, in post-Vedic times the curriculum of studies was modified. It transformed from being purely ritualistic to being broad based that included subjects such as grammar, philosophy and those of a secular nature.

Although the house of the teacher undoubtedly continued to be the centre of learning for a long time, knowledge was also spread through Charakas (popularly known as wandering teachers) and also through parishads (assemblies of intellectuals).

However, records suggest that in the ancient Indian educational system education was, if not primarily then to a certain extent, caste-oriented: for instance, a Brahman bay used to acquire only Vedic education that was necessary for his professional duties such as the performance of sacrifices and teachings. On the other hand, a Kshatriya boy used to acquire practical training in the use of arms, and literary and Vedic studies and in State-craft as well, because all these were helpful to him in his future career. Similarly the Vasya had to be well-versed in commercial subjects.

Thus, it may be suggested that education was fast becoming job-oriented and that the pursuit of knowledge was not merely for the sake of knowledge alone.

Any attempt to comprehend the ancient India educational system should be done with particular reference to objects of study, place, and time, method, curriculum, different kinds of teachers and schools of learning, pupil-preceptor relations, women’s education, fees, writing, spread of learning and vocational education.

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Objects of study in Ancient Indian Educational System

According to the ancient India educational system, the purpose of the study is the training of mind as an instrument of knowledge and not merely to fill it with superfluous matters. It asserts that it is only  education that helps a seeker in developing his personality. Thus the knowledge attained through education provides the vital force in him that is supposed to be useful throughout his life.

According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the seeker of the highest knowledge, the real knowledge that helps in distinguishing the self from the non-self appearing in various forms, should not seek merely the knowledge of books. Similarly, in the Katha Upanishad, it is said in this context that “Not by the study of the Vedas is the Atman attained, nor by intelligence, nor by much book learning. The mind has to be prepared through Sravana  (listening), manan (concentration) and nidhidhyasana (meditation)’. It is very important to mention here that were possible only under an enlightened and accomplished teacher (guru) who himself had attained siddhi (perfection).

It, therefore, can be assessed that education in the ancient Indian educational system had basically a religious and philosophical basis, though its utilitarian value was not completely diminished, as it is explicit from the curriculum.

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Subjects of Study in the ancient Indian educational system

In the time of Patanjali, the pupil was expected to study all the four Vedas, six Angas and their secret treatises, the pathas, the sacred transitions of the Bahuvrichas, the Atharva Veda and its nine branches, treatises on dialogues, the epics, the Puranas, historical legends, vakovakyam (the science of logic), and the vaidyakam (the science of medicine). There are references to the study of Chandasastra (the study of matrics) and Dharmasastra. It is important to mention here that in the time of Patanjali ‘grammer’ was not receiving adequate attention due to which he wrote his commentary.

However, Divyavadana (fourth century AD) prescribes a different elementary course of study that did not commence with the Vedas. According to it the study commenced with the first lesson in reading and writing at the guru’s house who had many other students as well (prabhutadarakah).

At that time in the ancient Indian educational system, the course of study began with the lesson siddham that ended in accomplishments in writing (lipyam), Sankhyam (arithmetic), ganana (accounting) and even in rules related to coinage and exchange. The Smriti authorities mention a sacrament called Vidhyarambha or akshara-svikriti (the beginning of education or learning of the alphabets).

Apart from these subjects of a general nature, the pupil used to study rules of irya (asceticism), Charya (medicany), Saucham (ceremonial purity), Samudacharya (good social form), bhoskara (the proper mode of address) and all the four Vedas. Thus, it seems that several other subjects dealing with grammar, philology and logic, etc., were not in the course of study of the ancient Indian educational system or were optional.

The most important aspect in this context is that all learned Brahmans were expected to have studied all four Vedas, the six Vedangas, the Puranas, Nyaya Mimamsa, and the Dharamsastras thus covering the ritualistic, legalistic, juristic, historical and philosophical aspects.

According to the records of the Gupta period, there were fourteen (or eighteen) subjects, popularly known as vidyas, that were regarded as within the scope of learned Brahmans. In the seventh century AD the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang observes that after finishing a work called ‘the Twelve Chapters’’, the children are introduced, in their seventh year, to five sciences: the science of sound or grammar, that relating to arts and crafts, the science of medicine, the science of reasoning and finally the science of internal discipline.

In the eighth year, the pupils took up Panini’s Sutras and the verbal appendix, that they completed in eight month’s time. A good grasp in grammar took another five years. After accomplishing mastery in grammar, the pupil studied hetuvidya (logic), abhidharma (metaphysics) and other allied disciplines. It was at advanced centers of learning that the courses of higher studies were provided.

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Professional and Vocational Education in the ancient Indian educational System

Professional education particularly in the field of medicines and surgery, as it was quite different from the one for the Vedic texts, grammar, and other disciplines, sought special attention. The two branches of medical science had acquired considerable significance in ancient India: there are references to physicians (bhishag) even in Rig Veda, and Taxila was an important seat of medical science in the six century BC with Jivaka, Ajatsatru’s famous physician, receiving his education there.

However, till the time of Charaka and Susruta of the Christian era, there is no information regarding the pattern for imparting instruction in these sciences. Susruta, while furnishing information on the initiation of pupil in the medical sciences says that the student desirous of studies in medicine had to be dvija (one of the twice-born castes) of tender years (vayas), belonging to a good family (anvaya) and gifted qualities like sila (calm temper), saurya (prowess), saucham (purity), Vinaya (modesty), saktibala (capacity and strength), Prasannachita (contended frame of mind), Vakya chestam (pleasant in speech) and klesasham (painstaking in efforts).

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To be continued…………

As an ambitious ruler with a fancy for innovations in policy matters both in foreign and domestic affairs, Muhammad Tughluq (full name- Muhammad Bin Tughluq) had a desire to conquer not only the entire Indian subcontinent but also Khurasan outside its boundary. And in the case of Indian subcontinent Muhammad Tughluq even desired to conquer its hilly region in the north.

Though Muhammad Tughluq tried certain innovations in administration domestic policy with best intentions, these affected the fortunes of his empire adversely. However, the most serious schemes of reforms Muhammad Tughluq introduced were taxation in the Doab, transfer of the capital to Daulatabad and introduction of token currency. It is important to note here that some writers have described these projects “mad schemes” of Muhammad Tughluq.

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Taxation in the Doab

Muhammad Tughluq in the beginning of his reign increased taxation in the Doab; on this measure of the Sultan Dr. AL Srivastava wrote that the Sultan desired to raise the revenue by five to ten percent only and that too not by house-tax and grazing tax. However, according to Barani, the taxation was raised by ten to twenty times more, while Gardner Brown said that the rise in taxation was normal.

Whatever might be the fact about the amount of percentage of raised taxes,it is quite certain that at a time when there had been a famine in Doab because of the failure of the rain, taxes were increased, due to which Pleasants instead of paying their taxes abandoned their lands and took to highway robbery.

Tax collectors, in order to extract taxes resorted to oppressive methods that resulted in widespread revolts. The Sultan suppressed the revolts with iron hands. On this episode Dr. Mahdi Hussain opined that disbanded soldiers of the army, which were earlier recruited for Khurasan expedition, had taken up cultivation as their occupation; however, when the taxes were increased they gave up cultivation and killed revenue officers. Therefore, the Sultan suppressed their rebellion severely.

However, in the context, the reason behind revolts hardly matters; the only thing of importance is that it is certain that the taxation was increased, the oppressive methods of collecting the taxes were the primary reasons of the revolts and the Sultan suppressed revolts rigorously.

According to Dr. A.L. Srivastava, the Sultan afterwards abolished the taxes, gave seed, bullocks, etc. to cultivators and arranged for the digging of wells for irrigation. But all these corrective measures bore no fruit because the ‘help’ was too late and the people utilized that help in filling up their empty bellies. In this way this policy of Sultan proved a perfect failure due to which even the usual revenue could not be collected from the Doab.

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Transfer of the Capital by Muhammad Tughluq

Muhammad Tughluq’s attempt to transfer the capital, in between AD 1326 and 1327, from Delhi to Devagiri that was renamed Daulatabad was one among the misunderstood measures. For this transfer different reasons have been given by different scholar writers. Writing on this particular initiative taken by the Sultan, Ibn Batuta and Isami said that the citizens of Delhi used to write letters to Sultan which contained abuses and scandals. So in order to punish the people he decided to lay Delhi Waste. Famous scholar writer Sir Woolserly Haig has accepted the version provided by Ibn Batuta. According to Professor Habibullah, the motive of the Sultan was to cater incentive to Muslim culture in the South. Moreover, the prosperity and the administrative convenience of the South were also the motives of Muhammad Tughluq. However, according to Dr. A.L. Srivastava, the desire of safeguarding the capital from Mongol invasions from the north-west, the necessity of consolidating the empire in the South and the temptation to utilize the rich resources the empire in the South and the temptation to utilize the rich resources of the South were primary considerations for the transfer of capital. According to the contemporary historians, the entire population was ordered to leave Delhi. Ibn Batuta writes, “A search was made and a blind man and a cripple were found. The cripple was put to death while the blind man was dragged to Daulatabad where only his one leg reached.” And not only this, Isami has written, “Muhammad Tughluq ordered that the city (Delhi) should be set on fire and all the populace should be turned out of it.” However, this view has not been accepted by some scholars; for instance, expressing his view on this particular episode Dr. K.A. Nizami has said, the entire population of Delhi was not asked to leave. Only the upper classes, consisting of nobles Ulema, Sheikhs and the elite of Delhi were shifted to Daulatabad. But historians of repute like Dr. R.C. Majumdar, Dr. A.L. Srivastava and Dr. Ishwari Prasad have described that there is no doubt in the fact that the Sultan had ordered all citizens of Delhi to vacate it.

Muhammad Tughluq took up all possible measures for providing comfort to people in the course of their journey from Delhi to Daulatabad. People were given free food and drinking water after every three kms of journey; shady trees were planted all along the roads, all were provided means of transport, all were compensated for the loss that they incurred in leaving their assets at Delhi, and all were given free residence and food at Daulatabad. Instead all these comforts no one can deny that the forty days journey from Delhi to Daulatabad would have been an extremely tormenting experience for the people of Delhi.

Realizing that his scheme had failed completely Muhammad Tughluq gave permission to people to return to Delhi in AD 1335. Several reasons have been given for the failure of the scheme.

The Sultan shouldn’t have asked the people and even the elite of Delhi first to go Daulatabad en masse because common people were neither prepared to shift to an unknown distant place nor was there any necessity of it. The Sultan at first, should have shifted only his ‘court’ and the rest would have followed themselves.

Even the theory that the Sultan wanted to shield the empire from the invasion of Mongols do not seem appropriate because Daulatabad, being a distant city from the north-west frontier, was no good choice to be the capital of the empire. From Daulatabad it was very difficult to resist invasions of Mongols. Thus the Sultan made a wrong choice of the place and took to wrong methods to transfer his capital. So, his scheme failed completely.

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Introduction of Token currency

The introduction of token currency and issuance of copper and brass coins was the most notable feature of the coinage system of Muhammad Tughluq. According to Barani, the Sultan introduced token currency because treasury was empty, while he needed money to fulfill his schemes of conquests. Most probably, Muhammad Tughluq was inspired by the examples of Iran and China where the policy of introducing token currency was implemented; but it is imperative to mention here that in both the countries it failed.

However, modern historians differed with these theories and were of the view that there was a worldwide shortage of silver at that time and India too faced its serious shortage; therefore, the Sultan was forced to issue token currency.

Both copper and brass coins were issued by Muhammad Tughluq, the Sultan made these token coins legal tenders and kept their value at par with gold and silver coins. Prior to this, the copper coin was Jital, i.e., Paisa. Now, the Sultan issued Tanka of copper for the Rupee of silver.

According to Prof. Habib, the people were responsible for the failure of this scheme because they failed to discriminate between genuine and imitated false coins.

But the rest of historians have put the blame on the Sultan for the failure of the scheme. According to them, it was a blunder on the part of the Sultan that he did not take proper precautions to check imitation of coins issued by the royal mint.

The token currency was kept in the market only for three to four years. Realizing the sheer failure of his scheme, Muhammad Tughluq, in all good faith, withdrew the entire token currency; the people were asked to return token coins for which they were paid back gold and silver coins by the royal treasury.

Although, Muhammad Tughluq failed in successfully implementing any of his schemes, it has been expressed in favour of the Sultan that his measures were way ahead of his time, and his officials and subjects failed to understand the worth of his schemes and, therefore,  did not cooperate with him to bring those measures to success.

However, the responsibility of the Sultan for the failure of his schemes cannot be ruled out. In fact Muhammad Tughluq himself was responsible to a large extend for the failure of his schemes. The Sultan it can be said politely, possessed on imaginative mind but did not have practical wisdom. He lacked patience also; he desired quick success. All these weaknesses contributed to the failure of his schemes.

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East India Company (EIC), originally chartered as the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies, and more properly called the Honourable East India Company, was an English, and later (from 1707).

The company rose to account for half of the world’s trade, particularly trade in basic commodities that included cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India.

The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600, making it the oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey and lasted until 1858 when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown to assume direct control of India in the new British Raj.

The East India Company has had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent. Although dissolved following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its armies after 1857 were to become the armies of British India and it played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India.

The arrival of tax-exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the American Revolution.

The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of orange – flavoured tea which led to the development of Earl Grey tea.

The East India Company introduced a system of merit-based appointments that provided a model for the British and Indian civil service.

At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was identical to the Grand Union Flag. Sir Charles Fawcett argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes.

The East India Company’s original coat of arms was granted in 1600.

The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the Company. The Club still exists today as a private gentlemen’s club with its club house situated at 16 St. James’s Square, London.

The company was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its presidency armies.

The British Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and plan for the transfer of power from the British Government to Indian leadership, providing India with independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the mission consisted of Lord Pethick-Lawrence, theSecretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate.

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The Mission’s purpose

• Hold preparatory discussions with elected representatives of British India and the Indian states in order to secure agreement as to the method of framing the constitution.
• Set up a constitution body.
• Set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties.

The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India. The two parties planned to determine a power-sharing arrangement between Hindus and Muslims to prevent a communal dispute, and to determine whether British India would be better-off unified or divided. The Congress party under Gandhi-Nehru nexus wanted to obtain a strong central government with more powers compared to state governments.

The All India Muslim League under Jinnah wanted to keep India united but with political safeguards provided to Muslims such as ‘guarantee’ of ‘parity’ in the legislatures. This stance of the League was backed up by the wide belief of Muslims that the British Raj was simply going to be turned into a ‘Hindu Raj’ once the British departed; and since the Muslim League regarded itself as the sole spokesman party of Indian Muslims, it was incumbent up on it to take the matter up with the Crown.

The Cabinet Mission arrived in India on 23 March 1946 and in Delhi on 2 April 1946. The announcement of the Plan on 16 May 1946 was preceded by the Simla Conference of 1945 in the first week of May. The focal point of the plan was the preservation of the ‘single state’. It provided for a Union of India comprising both British India and the states. The Union was to deal with the subjects of foreign affairs, defence and communications. It envisaged the formation of three groups of provinces: Section A to comprise the six Hindu majority provinces of Madras, Bombay, U.P., Orissa, C.P., Bihar; Section B, the provinces of the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, and Baluchistan; while the provinces of Bengal and Assam were to form Section C.

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The plan also promised that the provinces and the states will be the basic units and all subjects other than the Union subjects and all residuary powers would vest in the provinces. Para 8 of the 16 June statement of the Cabinet Delegation and the Viceroy stated that: ‘In the event of the two major parties or either of them unwilling to join in the setting up of a coalition government on the above lines, it is the intention of the Viceroy to proceed with the formation of an interim government which will be as representative as possible of those willing to accept the statement of May 16.’ Jinnah interpreted it thus: ‘To me that if the Congress refuses to join an interim government composed as proposed in that statement while the League agreed to do so, then the Viceroy would go ahead and form the government as proposed but without the Congress representatives.’

The Mission and the Viceroy interpreted it differently. They considered that since both parties had now accepted the statement of 16 May, paragraph 8 required that fresh efforts should be made to form an interim government. Jinnah protested that this interpretation had been dishonestly concocted by the legalistic talents of the Cabinet Mission.’ Consequent upon this ‘breach of faith’ the All India Muslim League Council passed a resolution to withdraw its acceptance (6 June 1946) of the Cabinet Plan on 28 July 1946. The Viceroy later unilaterally invited Congress to form the government on 6 August 1946. The Muslim League later joined the government on 25 October 1946.

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