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Politics in India

By
Syskool
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politics-in-india
politics-in-india

Politics in India takes place within the framework of a constitution. India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic in which the President of India is head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. The constitution defines the organisation, powers and limitations of both central and state governments.

There is provision for a bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper House, i.e. Rajya Sabha, which represent the states of the Indian federation and a lower house i.e. Lok Sabha that represents the people of India as a whole. Indian constitution provides for an independent Judiciary headed by the Supreme Court to adhere and protect the constitution and to settle disputes between the centre and the states or between the states, it can also nullify any central or state laws if they are against the constitution.

In India, elections are held according to The Representation of People Act, 1951. This Act was enacted before first General Election by the provisional parliament under Article 327 of Indian Constitution. The Act includes provisions for election of both the houses of parliament and state legislatures. It also has provisions for offenses and corrupt practices related to elections. Procedure for resolution of disputes or doubts in election result is also mentioned in the Representation of People Act.

Read Also: Financial inclusion

The Constitution says in Act 324(2) that the Commission will be composed of a Chief Election Commissioner aided by other Election Commissioners appointed by the President of India. In this light, and further by provisions of the Representation of People Act, 1951, The Election Commission of India was established to take care of elections in India including Presidential, Parliamentary, and State elections.

The governments, union or state, are formed through elections held every five years (unless otherwise specified), by having the majority of members in their respective lower houses (Lok Sabha in the centre and Vidhan Sabha in states). India had its first general election in 1951, which was dominated by Indian National Congress, and went on to dominate the successive elections, up till 1977, when the first non-Congress government was formed for the first time in independent India. The 1990s saw the end of Single Party domination and rise of Coalition Governments. The elections for 16th Lok Sabha were held in April and May 2014.

One feature of the political parties in India is that the parties are generally woven around their leaders, the leaders actively playing a dominant role, the role of leadership can be transferred and tends to take dynastic route.

India has a multi-party system, where there are a number of national as well as regional parties. A regional party may gain a majority and rule a particular state. If a party is represented in more than 4 states, it would be labelled a national party. Out of the 66 years of India’s independence, India has been ruled by the Indian National Congress (INC) for 53 of those years.

Must Read: Indian Citizenship

National Parties

A registered party large political parties which were earlier recognised as a National Party before 2014 elections. They are:

  • Indian National Congress
  • Communist Party of India
  • Bharatiya Janata Party
  • Bahujan Samaj Party 
  • Samajwadi Party

However in recent Lok Sabha Elections (2014) most of the parties from the aforesaid list have lost their National Party title and only two parties Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP) and Indian National Congress (INC) are now National Parties of India. The status of National Party has not been revoked from CPI because of its early foundation.

These status are given and revoked by the Election Commission in light of the provision of the Representation of People Act.

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2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC)

By
Syskool
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1
2nd administrative reform commission

Sensing the need for immediate and comprehensive evaluation of the administrative system, the Government of India appointed the second Administrative Reforms Commission on 31 August 2005, under the chairmanship of S. Veerappa Moily, member of Congress working committee and former Chief Minister of Karnataka. The Commission gave three reports in June 2006, July 2006 and September 2006. The fourth report released on 12 February 2007. ‘Ethics in Governance’, has been the latest, recommending greater transparency, accountability and ethical behavior in politics, judiciary, and administration.

Corruption is an important manifestation of the failure of ethics. Consequently, the commission also suggested measures for reducing or eliminating corruption. An empowered committee had already been set up to examine the recommendations of the commission and give its report.

The Commission was supposed to –

Suggest measures to achieve a proactive, responsive, accountable, sustainable and efficient administration for the country at all levels of the government. submit its report to the government within one year. broadly give recommendations on the following –

  1. Organisational structure of the Government of India.
  2. Ethics in governance.
  3. Refurbishing of Personnel Administration.
  4. Strengthening of Financial Management Systems.
  5. Steps to ensure effective administration at the state level.
  6. Steps to ensure effective District Administration.
  7. Local Self Government/Panchayat Raj Institutions.
  8. Social capital, Trust and participative public service delivery.
  9. Citizen-centric administration.
  10. Promoting e-governance.
  11. Issues of Fedeal Polity.
  12. Crisis Management.
  13. Public Order.
Second SRC was appointed after a gap of 44 years after the First Administrative Reforms Commission, which was appointed during the time of Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru in 1964.

Composition of Second Administrative Reforms Commission

Chairperson – Shri M. Veerappa Moily
Members – Shri V. Ramchandran, Dr. A.P. Mukherjee, Dr. A.H. Kalro, Dr. Jayaprakash Narayan.
Member Secretary – Smt. Vineeta Rai.
On July 17, 2006, Government of India extended the term of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission for one year.

Main Recommendations of 2nd ARC

  1. National Ombudsman: Lokpal should be given a Constitutional status and renamed the ‘Rashtriya Lokayukta’.
  2. Jurisdiction of Lokayukta should be extended to all Union Ministers except the Prime Minister, all Chief Ministers, all those holding public office equivalent to the ranks of a Union Minister and MPs.
  3. Lokayukta: The Constitution should be amended to incorporate a provision making it obligatory on the part of State Governments to establish the institution of Lokayukta.
  4. Lokayukta is to deal with curruption related cases only against ministers and MLAs.
  5. Ombudsman at Local Level: A Local Bodies’ Ombudsman should be constituted for a group of districts to investigate cases of corruption or maladministration against the functionaries of the local bodies and submit reports to the competent authorities.
  6. National Judicial Council: It recommended for setting up a NJC by amending Art. 124 and 217 of the Constitution of India for the purpose of recommending appointments of Supreme Court and High Court Judges.
  7. The NJC should have the following composition: The Vice-President should be the Chairperson of the Council. The PM, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the Chief Justice of India, the Union Law Minister, the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, the Leader of Opposition in the Rajya Sabha should be its members.
  8. The Council should be authorised to lay down the code of conduct for judges, including the Subordinate Judiciary.
  9. NJC should be empowered to investigate to inquire into alleged misconduct and impose minor penalties.
  10. NJC should be empowered to recommend removal of a Judge, if so warranted, based on the recommendations of the NJC, the President should have the powers to remove a Judge of the Supreme Court or High Court.
  11. Corruption: Citizens should be empowered to file cases to recover loss of public money due to corruptions.
  12. The Prevention of Corruption Act should be suitably amended to include in its purview private sector providers of public utility services.
  13. Office of Profit: It recommended that the law should be amended to define office of profit.
  14. All offices involving executive decision-making and control of punlic funds, including positions on the governing boards of public undertakings and statutory and non-statutory authorities directly deciding policy or managing institutions or authorising or approving expenditure should be treated as” office of profit and no legislator shall hold such offices.
  15. Election Commission: A collegium headed by the Prime Minister with the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the leader of opposition in the Lok Sabha, the Law Minister and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha as members should make recommendations for the consideration of the president of the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners.
  16. Election Expenditure: A system for partial state funding should be introduced in order to reduce the scope of illegitimate and unnecessary funding of expenditure for elections.
  17. Anti-Defection Law: There should be a constitutional amendment to bar mid-stream alignment of parties in a coalition.
  18. The constitutional amendment should ensure that a party which joins a coalition on the basis of a common minimum programme should be required to seek a fresh mandate if it attempts mid-term re-alignment.
  19. The Commission has recommended empowering the President and Governors in the States to take a call on allegations of defection.
  20. The President and Governors should disqualify MPs and MLAs respectively for defection, at the recommendation of the Election Commission.

MPLADS and MLALADS: SARC has recommended that schemes such as MPLADS (Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme) and the MLALADS (Member of the Legislative Assembly Local Area Development Scheme) should be abolished.

International Monetary Fund – Members and Voting Rights

By
Syskool
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0
imf member international monetary fund

International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization, established on December 27, 1945, in Washington on the recommendations of Bretton Woods Conference. But it started its operation on March 1, 1947. At present 189 nations are members of the International Monetary Fund. Nauru became the newest member in April 2016.

After Dominique Strauss-Kahn, Christine Lagard had been made as Managing Director of IMF on July 5, 2011. She is still serving as 11th MD of International Monetary Fund.

Objectives of International Monetary Fund
According to Article of Agreement of the IMF, its main objectives are as follows:

(1) To promote international monetary co-operation

(2) To ensure balanced international trade

(3) To ensure exchange rate stability

(4) To eliminate or to minimize exchange restrictions by promoting the system of multilateral payments

(5) To grant economic assistance to member countries for eliminating the adverse imbalance in balance payments.To minimize imbalance in quantum and duration of international trade

(6) To minimize imbalance in quantum and duration of international trade

Constitution, Membership, and Capital of International Monetary Fund

International Monetary Fund is controlled and managed by a board of Governors. Each member country nominates a Governor. All the nominated Governors make a board of governors. Each country also nominates an alternate Governor who casts his vote in the absence of the Governor. Each Governor is allotted a number of votes which is determined by the quota allotted to the respective country in the capital of IMF. Each Governor has got the right of 250 votes on the basis of membership and one additional vote for each SDR 1,00,000 of quota. The additional of these two types of votes becomes the actual voting right of the member country. It clearly indicates that the voting right depends on the quantum of the quota of a particular country with IMF. This is the reason why the rich and industrialised countries got the higher voting rights due to their higher quotas. with theInternational Monetary Fund.

Read Also: The Governor: Appointment, Functions, and Powers

The main source of International Monetary Fund resources is the quota allotted to the member countries. Till 1971, all the amounts of quotas and the assistance provided were denominated in US dollar, but since December 1971, all the quotas and transactions are expressed in SDR (Special Drawing Right) which is also known as Paper Gold. In 1971, one SDR was assumed equivalent to 1 dollar but due to the subsequent decline in dollar value,  SDR 1 became equivalent to $1.585 by the end of April 1995. Since January 1, 1981, the value of SDR is being determined by the basket  of currency of 5 largest exporting member countries: US dollar, Deutsche Mark, Yen, Franc, and Pound Sterling.

In 1991, the weight to these 5 currencies in SDR price determination was as follows:

American Dollar 40 %
German Franc 21 %
Japanese Yen 17 %
British Pound 11 %
French Franc 11 %

The currency value of SDR is determined by the IMF each day by summarising the value in US dollars, based on the market exchange rates of a basket of fine currencies.

The IMF’s financial year is from 1 May to 30 April. IMF lends to various member countries in the form of various facilities (Extended Fund Facility, Standby Facility, Contingent Credit Lines, Compensatory Facility etc.) designed to serve a specific purpose, but essentially aimed at a balance of payments stabilisation or meeting the emergent foreign exchange needs. The poor countries are also helped by funding from Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility. As on June 2004, the IMF was lending to 13 members in the from of standby facility, to two members under Extended Arrangements and 38 poor countries under poverty Reduction and Growth Facility.

The quota allotted by the IMF to each member has to be deposited partly in their own currency and remainder in the form of foreign exchange.

Read Also: IBSA Dialogue Forum: A New Initiative of Developing Countries

India’s 8th Place in International Monetary Fund General Quota

After the review of IMF’s General Quota, India’s quota has been raised to 1311.44 crore SDR. (to understand today on 15/10/2017 1 SDR = $ 1.42 = Rs 91.52). This quota hike has raised India’s vote share 2.79%.
India has been placed at 8th place in IMF’s General Quota. The USA remains in biggest quota holder despite its quota share of 17.68%.

Country Quota
USA 17.68%
Japan 6.56%
China 6.49%
Germany 5.67%
France 4.29%
UK 4.29%
Country Quota
Italy 3.21%
India 2.79%
Russia 2.75%
Brazil 2.35%
Canada 2.35%
Saudi Arabia 2.13%

India and International Monetary Fund

International Monetary Fund has played an important role in Indian economy. IMF has provided economic assistance from time to time to India and has also provided appropriate consultancy in the determination of various policies in the country. India is the founder member of IMF. The finance minster is ex-officio governor in IMF board of Governors. Till 1970, India was among the first five-nation highest quota with IMF and due to this status, India was allotted a permanent Place in executive Board of Directors.

IMF Financial Transactions Plan

India participates in FTP of the IMF from 2002. 43 countries, including India, now participate in FTP. By participation in FTP, India is allowing IMF to encash its rupee holding as a part of our quota contribution for hard currency which is then lent to other member countries who are debtors to the IMF.

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In July India and IMF joint training program at then National Institute of Banking Management, Pune was established. The training program will provide policy-oriented training in economics and related operational fields to Indian officials and officials of countries in South Asia and East Africa. The first training program was held during July 2006. The RBI is a nodal body to co-ordinate the training program with the International Monetary Fund.

Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility

Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) was established in 1987 with an amount of SDR 6 billion to help the low-income countries with heavy debt burdens in the difficult external environment and implement comprehensive macro-economic and structural policy program aiming at strengthening their balance of payments position and fostering growth. India contributes as donations to Subsidy Account and made a commitment to provide grant contribution to the extent of US $ 1 million per year over 15 years for a total of US $ 15 million.

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United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

By
Syskool
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0
unctad

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is the principal organ of the United Nations General Assembly dealing with trade, investment, and development issues. It was established in 1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body. The organization’s goals are to: “maximize the trade, investment, and development opportunities of developing countries and assist them in their efforts to integrate into the world economy on an equitable basis.

UNO declared 1960-70 as the development decade. In 1961, UNO attempted to increase the income of developing countries with the growth rate of 5% p.a. during that development decade. In July 1960, a conference of developing countries was held in Cairo which resolved to convene a world conference for this purpose. Economic and Social Council of UNO organize a World Trade and Development Conference from March 31, 1964, to July 16, 1964. A worldwide International Trade Policy was determined in this conference. Various issues related to the extension of international trade of developing countries were also discussed in that conference. The conference came to be known as UNCTAD-I.

Presently, it has become a permanent organization for promoting international trade with its headquarter at Geneva (Switzerland), Mr. Allec Irwin is its present Chairman. Generally, it has its session after four years. IMF has got the permanent representation in all its bodies. This is the reason why IMF includes all United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) proposals in its policies. Its recommendations are only suggestions and no country can be compelled to accept them.

Read Also: IMF Vs World Bank  How IMF and World Bank are different?

The details are as follows:

UNCTAD I Cairo Mar 31 – June 16, 1964
UNCTAD II New Delhi Feb – March 1968
UNCTAD III Santiago (Chile) April – May 1972
UNCTAD IV Nairobi (Africa) May 1976
UNCTAD V Manila (Philippines) May 7 – June 2, 1979
UNCTAD VI Belgrade (Yugoslavia) June 6 – July 3, 1983
UNCTAD VII Geneva (Switzerland) 1987
UNCTAD VIII Cartegina DE Indias (Colombia) 1992
UNCTAD IX Midrand (Africa) April 27 – May 11, 1996
UNCTAD X Bangkok (Thailand) Feb 12 – Feb 19, 2000
UNCTAD XI Sao-Paulo (Brazil) June 13 – June 18, 2004
UNCTAD XII Accra (Ghana) April 20 – April 25, 2008
UNCTAD XIII Doha (Qatar) 21 – 26 April 2012
UNCTAD XIV Nairobi (Kenya) 17 to 22 July 2016

 

Objectives of United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

  1. To promote international trade especially with the view to accelerating the economic development of underdeveloped countries.
  2. To determine policies and principles for international trade and economic development.
  3. To propose the strategy for implementing pre-approved principles and policies.
  4. To assist Economic and Social Council of the UNO.
  5. To provide a suitable platform for trade dialogues.

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Members of United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Though it is functioning as a permanent agency of the UNO, but its membership is fully optional. Any country may join or quit. The functions of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development is that on democratic principles every member has only one voting right. For general disputes, the simple majority among present members but the two- third majority is needed for important issues.

Also, Read:

Important Funding Agencies of the World

The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

(Urban) Local Self-Government

By
Kumar Prafull
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3
Local Self-Government

The Chief Local Government Institutions, that establish a mechanism of local self government in the urban areas (towns, cities and metropolises), include Nagar Panchayats, Municipal Committees and the Municipal Corporations.

Nagar Panchayats

Nagar Panchayat, as the constituent of the local self-government, is the smallest unit of the urban population. Areas in the process of changing from rural to urban centres are known as towns; generally a town is bigger than a village but smaller than a city. A Nagar Panchayat’s members are elected by the voters, at least 18 years of age, of the region. Members must be at least 21 years of age.

Also Read: Strengthening Gram Swaraj via Panchayats

Main Functions of the Nagar Panchayats

  • It, as a fundamental component of the local self-government, maintains records of birth and death within its jurisdiction.
  • It is its responsibility to cater civic amenities such as Safe drinking water, electricity etc.
  • It is responsible for the construction and maintenance of roads too.
  • It also builds arks, primary schools and dispensaries.

Sources of Income of the Nagar Panchayat

  • Grants from the State Government are the main source
  • Income from taxes like house tax, building tax, sales tax, vehicle tax, etc.

Municipal Committee

The Municipal Committee or the Municipal Board, as it is also known, is the local self-government of a smaller town having a population generally between 20,000 and 60,000. There are generally 15 to 60 elected members of the Municipal Committee. These members are directly elected by the registered voters. For the purpose of election the entire area is divided into wards.

The elected members of the Municipal Committee elect a President and a Vice-President who presides over the meeting of the Committee and with the assistance of the executive officers like Secretary, the Health Officer, the Municipal Engineer carries out the functions of the committee.

In a Corporation or Municipality seats for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes are reserved in the ratio of their population to the total population of the town/city. 1/3rd of its members must be women of these tribes and castes.

Must Read: The Panchayati Raj

Municipal Corporation

In very big cities (Metropolises) like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmadabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Patna, etc. millions of people live over an area covering miles together. To provide these millions of people transport, pure drinking water, regular supply of electricity, schools and colleges, hospitals and other essential amenities is the duty and responsibility of the local self-government which in this case is the Municipal Corporation.

The Municipal Corporation is the local self-government of a big city with a population of 10 lakh people or more. There are approximately 75 Municipal Corporations in India. In some states it is also known as Mahanagar Nigam or Mahanagar Palika.

The elected members whose numbers vary from Corporation to Corporation, of the Corporation are councilors. These Councillors, in turn may, elect Aldermen who are known for their experience and knowledge. All these men constitute the Municipal Corporation.

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Mayor, Deputy Mayor and Permanent Officials and Staff

The Councillors elect a Mayor, who is also called Mahapaur, and a Deputy Mayor from among themselves. The Mayor presides over the meeting of the Corporation and with the assistance of the officials of the Corporation looks after its work.

The Officers of the Corporation include, first of all, a Commissioner who is the highest official and is usually an IAS; he or she is appointed by the State Government. He acts as a general manager and advisor of the Corporation. He functions like a chain between the people and the Councillors.

Apart from the Commissioner, that is the Health Officer who is responsible for looking after the hospital and the dispensaries of the Corporation; the Chief Engineer who directs and supervises the building construction and repairs of the roads and streets, bridge, drainages etc.; then there are Education officers, the Executive Officers and the Octroi Inspectors, etc.

Functions of Corporation and Municipality

The functions of these two components of (Urban) Local Self-Government are very much similar; if there is any difference, it is only in the extent and scope than in their content. The functions of these bodies of the local self-government have been broadly separated into two classes: Compulsory Functions and Optional Functions.

Compulsory Functions: To take care of public health and sanitation is the first compulsory function of local self-government. It adopts both preventive and curative measures for the good health of the people.

Preventive measure(s): immunization of children at an early age against small pox, polio, tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, etc.

Curative measure(s): Setting up of hospitals and dispensaries under qualified doctors in different localities;

  • For restricting epidemics, inoculations and vaccinations are provided free of cost;
  • Women and child health care centres are also set-up.

One of the important function of the local self- government, that is Municipal Corporation, is to provide good roads and streets in its area and maintain them in good condition.

Education is a very important area that comes within the function of the local Self-Government because education, in itself, alone can prepare good citizens. For the efficiency in education at the grassroots level, local bodies set-up Primary Schools; mentionable here the fact is that the Primary Education in our country is both free and compulsory.

One of the other important function of the local self-government, that is the Municipal Corporation, is to arrange for public safety against dilapidated buildings and fire. For this the Corporation maintains fire engines and a trained staff to save life and property of the people. Similarly, it the duty of the Municipal Corporation, the local self-government, to grant sanction for setting up cinema houses, theatres, marriage places and petrol pumps. The Corporation and the Municipalities keep an eye on these places to ensure public safety.

Also Read: Fundamental Duties Incorporated in Constitution of India

Optional Functions

Optional or voluntary function of the local self-government which it funds allows, it may perform:

  • Develop parks, gardens, picnic spots, museum, zoo etc.
  • Maintain rest houses, night shelters, children’s homes, orphanages, Senior citizens homes, home for destitute women, etc.
  • To run educational institutions like school, college, polytechnic, etc.
  • To provide efficient and cheap local service, or any other mode of transport.
  • To arrange for toilets, bathrooms, bathing ghats, washing ghats, etc.

Sources of income of these bodies of the local self-government included:

  • Property tax and toll tax on use of roads and bridges.
  • Tax on vehicles, parking places, markets and hawkers.
  • Octroi duty on goods brought into the city.
  • Grants from the State Government.
  • Income from water and electricity supply.
  • Income from the sale of municipal or Corporation land.
  • Income from rents of the property of the Municipal Corporation.
  • Entertainment tax.
  • Loans approved by the State Government.

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