The Bhakti Movement, one of the most remarkable features of the medieval age, remained influential for many centuries. This movement has in fact inscribed deep impact on modern Hinduism.

Different Opinions on the Source of the Bhakti Movement

Different opinions have been expressed about the sources of this movement. Some well known European scholar historians of their time like Grierson and Weber propound the view that the idea of Bhakti as a means to get salvation has been taken by the Hindus from Christianity. They also have expressed that the idea of Bhakti as the monotheistic doctrine of Hinduism too has been borrowed from Christianity.

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However, no contemporary modern scholar consents with these views as another idea replaced this one; this new idea claimed that it was the influence of Islam on Hinduism directly or indirectly that caused the Bhakti Movement of the medieval age. There were some scholars who even suggested that the monotheistic doctrine of Shankracharya was influenced by Islam.

However, some scholars have pointed out that the Bhakti Movement has traditionally been accepted as an influential/social reformation in Hinduism that catered an individual focused, that is monotheistic approach, alternative way for attaining spirituality/salvation without paying any heed to one’s caste, birth or gender.

But post modern historians have tried to establish what they call the more rational approach, that the Bhakti Movement was +revival, reworking and re-contextualization of those ancient traditions which were propounded by the traditions described in detail in Vedic literature. According to them the scriptures of the Bhakti Movement are the Bhagvad Gita, Bhagvat Purana and Padam Purana. Ancient texts such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad and the Bhagvad Gita mention term Bhakti.

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Bhakti: a movement within Hinduism

The Bhakti Movement, de facto, was a movement within Hinduism itself. Hinduism propogates that there are three ways to attain salvation (Moksha): Jnan (Knowledge); Karma (Duty) and Bhakti (Devotion). Preachers and saints belonging to Hindu religion emphasized at different times the one, the other or the third one.

During the medieval period Hindu saints and preachers began to emphasize Bhakti as a means to attain Moksha that became the cause of spread of the Movement. According to some important scholar historians, it would be improper to claim that the Bhakti Movement was entirely a new movement within Hindusim.

These scholars mention that in the sixth century BCE the Bhagvad Movement that took birth along with Buddhism and Jainism but at that time the Movement failed as it could not gain strength. It, however, got popular during the medieval age and resulted in the development of the Bhakti Movement. The fact is that the Bhakti Movement swept over north and east India from the 15^th century onwards and got to its zenith between 15^th and 17^th century CE.

As the Bhakti Movement was inspired by various poet-saints with a wide range of philosophical positions, it grew around different gods and goddess, such as Vishnu (Vaishnavism), Shiva (Shaivism), Shakti goddess (Shaktism).

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Saints of the Bhakti Movement

The saints of this Movement gave stress to certain common and certain principles: none of them linked themselves to any particular social or religious sect and none of them ever attempted to establish a new religion. Most of these saints had no blind, that is unreasoned, faith in any religious text and did not have any belief in any priestly rituals.

The saints of the Bhakti Movement believed in one God who could be called by different names such as Rama, Krishna, Shiva or Allah. They were against caste system and idol worship and emphasized that the Bhakti is the only names to attain salvation (Moksha).

The saints of the Bhakti Movement preached in the regional languages of the people; they preached the idea, that ‘God could be achieved only by the Grace of God that itself could be achieved only by one’s own effort’, in simple language in prose or poetry or prayers.

It was during the medieval period of Indian history that the phrase ‘the Bhakti Movement’ started to appear with some recognition as different saints gave their message to the people at different times and different places. One name that became famous and flourished in the early years of the twelfth century was that of Ramanuja who believed in Saguna Brahmana (God). He allowed even Sudras to visit temples on fixed days within a year and made them believe that they could attain moksha through Bhakti.

Another famous saint of 12^th century was Nimbarka who was a devotee of Radha-Krishna. One another prominent saint who flourished in 13^th century was Madhavacharya. He was a devotee of Lakshmi Narayan. Though these saints were pioneers of the Bhakti Movement, they failed to popularize it among the masses.

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Important saints of the Bhakti Movement

Ramananda

Though Ramananda was a Brahmin, he welcomed people of all castes within his sect. the credit of making the Movement popular among general masses goes to Ramananda. He gave equal status to women too. His twelve disciples carried his message further and made the movement very popular in the larger part of north India.

Kabir

Kabir, the most famous disciple of Ramananda, was picked up, as he was left by his widow mother after his birth, by a Muslim weaver who brought him up. Kabir was a devotee of Rama, but he staunchly believed in the unity of God and he never believed in idol worship or any physical symbol of God: Kabir famously said “Pawan (Pathar) puje Hari Milay to main pujun pahar (mountain).”  That is enough to say about his belief. He was against any form of rituals, caste system and differences of religion. In fact Kabir’s beliefs, thoughts, philosophy of life or any other things in which he believed are recorded in verse form in a book named Gudari, that is of course a very enlightening one. Kabir was a householder saint who got immense popularity among Hindus and Muslims. Even in this modern age, Kabir has not lost its relevance; instead some of his thoughts are now part of our Constitution too.

There are many important poets other than these two most famous propounder the Movement which need separate treatment as their contributions cannot and should not be penned down as a passing reference.

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The origin of Saivism may be traced to, as the scholar-historian M.N. Das says, much earlier times that of Vaisnavism, however, both cults have been mentioned by Megasthenes in the fourth century BC. Some historians are firm in their opinion that Saivism in some form of other was common among the non-Aryans.

As a separate religious sect Saivism, with its own philosophy, may be traced to the Pasuputa form mentioned in the Mahabharata. In the Mahabharata the systems of Sankhya, Yoga, Panchtantra and Veda are also mentioned. Patanjali, and not only Megasthenes, in his Mahabhashya, has mentioned Siva-bhagvatas and Images of Siva and Skanda.

According to the Bhashyakara, the devotees of Siva used to carry an iron lance (ayah, sulikah) as the symbol of their deity. This ayah or Sulikah in its structure looked like the trishula (the iron trident). Among the devotees the practice of penance and other dhuta (rites) were prevalent.

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Till this time, the practice of Linga Worship had not come into existence, so people worshipped Siva and his two sons Skanda and Visakha. In the process and with the time images of Siva,Skanda and Vaisakha became a source of livelihood for their keepers (jivikarthe).

Saivism, the theistic sect, is mentioned in the Mahabharata as being prominent and widespread among the people. In this epic, the characteristics of Shiva are distinctly defined, rather elaborated, and include  some new features besides that of Vedic-Rudra that is supposed to be the pioneer of Siva-Saivism.

In the literature of the Sangam period too, in the South, Siva has been mentioned as the greatest of Gods.

References of Saivism in the Tamil country have been made in detail, in the two classics Silappadikaram and Manemekhala; these two classics are generally assigned to the first centuries of the Christian Era.

It is presumed that the phallic figure of Siva, as forms of the God, were at first enshrined in the main sanctum of the Siva temples but later on its became the great custom to place the Siva-linga (the phallic form) alone as the object of worship. The earliest figure of Siva is the famous Gudimallam linga near Renigunta, Madrass (now Chennai); this five feet high phallic symbol has on it a two-armed figure of Siva who is holding a ram in his right hand and a water vessel and battle axe in the left and standing on the shoulders of a malformed dwarf.

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Principles of Saivism

The fundamental concept of Saivism, based on a scientific and philosophical plank, is that ‘a changing cosmic force destroys as well as reproduces the universe’. Siva does not appear as an incarnate, although it has been mentioned in the Vayu and the Linga Puranas that Siva incarnated himself as a Brahmacharin by the name of Lakulin and had four pupils (Shishyas)’ namely, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurusha and Maitreya. The Pasuputa School, founded by Lakulin, has been mentioned in the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata.

According to the philosophy of Saivism, Lord represents the force that rules the universe. It is the Lord who produces and destroys and therefore effects a change. The union of Purusha and Prakriti in an unceasing process, continually revealing itself in individuals who must have a beginning and an end. The Lord id both Creator and Destroyer.

Siva is described, on the basis of the nature of his activities, as a great ascetic and as a personification of the forces of nature. And not only this, Siva has been also identified with Time (Mahakala) and Death (Mrityu). Siva is, as presiding over procreation, Ardhanarishvara, half man, and half woman. He is Mahadeva, the Great God, Hara the seizer, Bhairava  the terrible, Bhavesa the lord of the world, Pasupati,  the lord of cattle, symbolizing human souls.

Siva  is  described as a powerful, wrathful and fierce but generous and bountiful God; one who spares nothing when pacified, and confers boons on his devotees.

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Types of Saivism

Saivism in the North

The Pasupata, the earliest set of saivism referred in the Mahabharata, is linked to the early stages with the ‘Lord of Cattle’ but later on with the lord (pati) who helps his creatures (pasu) in attaining freedom from bondage (pasa).

The coins of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian and Kushana rulers depict the god Siva in human from who is reclining on his sacred bull, the Nandi. The popularity of saivism and its impact on Kushanas is quite evident from the fact that Wima Kadphses, a Kushan ruler, styled himself as Maheshvara ( a devotee of Mahesa, another name for Lord Siva).

From the sculptures as well as from inscriptions of the Gupta Period it becomes evident that the worship of Siva in his human from along with Uma Parvati  was in practice. A sculpture from Mathura, belonging to the period of late Kushana, shows Shiva  and Parvati  standing against Nandi.

Besides the Gupta rulers, saivism was also patronized by Sasanka of Bengal,  the rulers of Pushpabhuti dynasty of Thaneshvajrkanauj  and the Maitrakas of Valabhi. The Huna king Mihirakula was also a Saivite.

The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang in the middle of the seventeenth century AD has made several references to the cult of the Pasupatas and to the temples of Mahesvara at which the Pasupatas worshipped. The sect consisted of bairagis (ascetics) who besmeared their bodies with ashes, as well as householders, all of them being devotees of Siva.

The sects into which Saivism seems to have merged in later times were based upon scientific methods of redemption, with the advancement of religious, and philosophical thought linked with saivism.

Saivism in the South (India)

Saivism in the southern part of India flourished during the sixth century AD. Saivism was patronized by the Pallava rulers of the Deccan as well the Chalukyas and the Rashivakutas. The saivsim,  that prevailed in the south, was of the ordinary kind in which the praises of siva was sung in the Devaran (houses of God) in fervent devotion.

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The system of philosophy linked to saivism was developed slightly later. The Periyapurana provides an account of sixty-three bhaktas (devotees) of Siva resembling Alvaras of the Vaishnavas. The Sangal literature mentions Siva and his accomplishments, while the Silappadikaram refers the panchakshora (the five letters of the mantra ‘Namah Sivaya’).

Saivism got great encouragement from life and work of Sankara, a spiritual genius, who was born in Kerala at Kaladi about the year AD 788. Sankara, although he was the greatest exponent of Advaita Vedanta, composed various hymns in praise of Siva, the God of gods.

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Sikhism had its origin in the teachings of Guru Nanak (1460-1539) who preached a message of truth and peace and advocated a simple monotheistic faith. Guru Nanak, before his death, nominated one of his disciples as Guru so that he could continue to spread his teachings.

The term Sikhism has its origin in the Punjabi word Sikh which literal meaning is a ‘disciple’ or a ‘learner’. Sikhism as a religion originated in Punjab during the 15^th century. It is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak and the ten successive Sikh gurus after him. The development of Sikhism was closely linked with the institution of Guruship.

After the death of tenth Guru, Guru Govind Singh, Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Scripture, was made the literal incarnation of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture’s words serve as the spiritual guru for Sikhs. It was Guru Govind Singh himself who decreed in 1708 that the Guru Granth Sahib would be the final and perpetual Guru of the Sikhs.

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Philosophy and teachings of Sikhism

The essence of the teachings of Sikhism can be summed up in the words of Guru Nanak: “Realization of Truth is higher than all else. High still is truthful living”. The teachings stress the principle of equality of all human beings and reject discrimination on the basis of creed, caste, and gender.

According to the teachings of Guru Nanak, living an “active, creative, and practical life” of truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity is above abstract truth, and the ideal man is one who “establishes the union with God, knows his will, and carries out that will”. Guru Nanak also established the langar system , communal kitchen, to demonstrate the need to share and have a sense equality between all people. This langar system (common free kitchen maintained by voluntary offerings) became popular and countries till date. It encouraged social equality in the panth and became a source of Sikh unity and solidarity.

The Concept of God in Sikhism

In Sikhism the concept of God is Vahiguru-shapeless, timeless, and sightless (unable to be seen with the physical eyes): nirankar, akaal and alakh. It has been stated in the Guru Granth Sahib that “God” is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything and is denoted by the term Ik Onkar. Sikhs believe that all that existed before creation was “God” and God’s hukum (will or order).

God, according to Sikhism, is known as Ik Onkar, the one Supreme Reality or the all-saturating spirit-another name for god. It is also Akaal Purkh, that is beyond time and space, and Nirankar meaning without form.

According to Guru Nanak, the understanding of Akaal is beyond the power of human beings, but at the same time not wholly unrealizable. Akaal is sarav viapak (omnipresent) in all creation and visible everywhere to those who are spiritually awakened. Nanak emphasized that God must be seen from “the inward eye”, or the “heart”, of a human being. Nanak stressed the revelation through meditation.

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The opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Mul Mantra, mentions Ik Onkar: “There is but one all-pervading spirit, and truth is its name! It exists in all creation; it does not fear; it does not hate; it is timeless and universal and self-existent, you will come to know it through seeking knowledge and learning!”

The Timeless Truth of Sikhism

According to Guru Nanak the ultimate purpose of human life is to re-link with Akaal (the timeless entity) in which egotism is the biggest obstacle. In Sikhism, the influence of ego, anger, agreed, attachment and lust are known as five thieves and believed to be particularly distracting. It is believed in Sikhism that remembrance of nam (the Name of the God) leads to an end of egotism.

The teachings of Sikhism emphasis simran that is the meditation on the words of the Guru Granth Sahib, that can be uttered musically through Kirtan or internally through Nam Japo as a process to feel God’s presence and to get command over the ‘Five Thieves’.

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The followers of Sikhism believe that the world at present is going through a state of Kali Yuga (Age of Darkness) because it is being led by the love and attachment to Maya. The fate of those people who are weak enough to become the victim of ‘Panj Chor’ (Five Thieves) is separation from God and situation can be remedied only through the relentless devotion.

Maya or illusion

Maya, defined as “unreality” or illusion, is considered as one of the kernel distractions from the search of God and salvation. However, Guru Nanak stressed maya as not an example of the unreality of the world, but of its values.

Service and Action in Sikhism

Guru Granth Sahib teaches that seva (selfless service) and charitable works enable the devotee, the follower of the panth, to suppress or remove the ego. One of the main teachings of Sikhism is that meditation is unfruitful without service and action. According to Sikhism, service takes three forms: “Tan”-physical service; “Man”-mental service (such as to study for helping others); and “Dhan”-material service. Guru Nanak emphasized Kirat Karo: that a Sikh should balance work, worship, and charity and should defend the rights of all human beings. They are inspirited to follow a Chardi kala, that is optimistic–resilence, view of life: Sikh teachings also emphasize the concept of sharing-vand-chakko-by distributing free food at Sikh gurudwaras, that is popularly known as langar, imparting charitable donations, and working for the good of the community and the society s a whole.

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The Gandhara Art

Saivism: Origin, Principles, and Kinds

The Gandhara Art, justifying its name, is localized to a particular region in the north-west within a definite period and of a particular material. It is also known as the Graceo-Buddhist art. On the one hand in its origin, it is considered to be a blend of Graceo-Roman and Indian forms that for a span from the 2^nd century to the 4^th century AD provided the way to a definitely classical style. However, this major Roman, Palmyrene style was lost in the last phase of Graceo-Buddhist art in a fully Indian type of sculpture resembling to the work of the Gupta period.

On the other hand, Gandhara art is considered iconographically to be a local phase of Hellenistic, not Roman art. It ascended from the art of the Greek period in Afghanistan and the Punjab. It is also considered as an eastern extension of Hellenistic civilization blended with Indian elements or most probably a western extension of Indian culture.

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The Hellenistic motifs observed in the Gandhara art are the Persepolitan capital, crenellation and fantastic monsters like the Sphinx and gryphon. The other major aspects of Hellenistic art comprise forms like the Atlantic, garland bearing erotes, and semi-human creatures like the centaur, triton, and hippocamp. These forms were introduced by the Romanised Eurasian artists in the service of the Kushana monarchs.

Impact of Rome

That there was an intimate cultural relationship between India and Rome and that there was Rome’s impact on the Gandhara art can be substantiated by the presence of foreign objects that include the statue of Hippocrates and Dionysius, bronze Heracles, steatite plaques or cosmic dishes with erotic scenes popularly called toilet trays, Syrian glass and Roman Metal and Stucco sculptures. It can be inferred that foreign influence was strong in the earlier phase which gradually receded. The Buddha image in Greek gradually reduced. The Buddha image in Greek drapery dominates the entire scene of the Gandhara Art.

The Gandhara Bodhisattvas

They are displayed in royal attire with the elaborate head dress and ornaments. Their style in Gandhara is supported to be a blend of techniques. The stiff swallow tail folds of the loin-cloth or dhoti are considered an adaptation of the neo-Attic style of the time of Hadrian in Rome.

The Bodhisattvas figures comprise those of Avalokitesvara, Padmapani, Manjusri and the later Maitreya who is prominent in Gandhara art several statues of this Buddhist divinity, standing, sitting in meditation and in attitudes of protection and contemplation have been found in Gandhara.

Avalokitesvara has the seated image of the Buddha in meditation. This Bodhisattva is marked by the lotus flower in his hand. Among the other Buddhist divinities, Panchaka-Kubera and his consort Hariti also figure prominently in the Gandhara art. This ogress converted to Buddhism is displayed with her children clinging to her.

Besides these, the two Brahmanical divinities, Brahman and Indra (Sakra) are also depicted in Gandhara art but not independently. Some foreign divinities such as Athena-Roma, Hippocrates, Silenus, Parro and Ardoksho, Demeter, Atlantes and the Marine deities are also portrayed. There was a tendency towards Indianisation that can be observed in Amohini Yakshas, Garuda the mythical bird, Yakshas and Yakshis, Kinnars and Gandharvas.

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Role of Architecture

In the context of the architectural sphere, Gandhara art is distinguished by the use of different orders, floral designs, and animal motifs as decoration. The architects who were known as navakarmikas showed their talent in constructing stupas and Viharas and ornamenting these with floral designs.

The famous stupa in the shape of a tower built by Kanishka near Peshawar to a height 700 feet in thirteen storeys, Hiuen-Tsang says, was the greatest architectural achievement of this period. The Corinthian columns, pilasters, and capitals are modified in Gandhara art.

The Corinthian order is presumed to dominate in Gandhara architecture that shows an absence of the Doric and Ionic types. The type of masonry that is used in the buildings at Taxila points to the time of the formation of the structures.

Gandhara art: a controversial subject

In the context of its chronology, the Gandhara art continues to be a controversial subject. The Foreign impact is clearly evident as it is apparent in the Apollo-faced figure of the Buddha, chiton, and himation in dress, in the Corinthian orders and floral designs and also in the depiction of some foreign divinities.

They might indicate to an earlier phase of strong Hellenistic impact, dating roughly from AD 140-240, from the time of the accession of Kanishka to the throne to the end of the Kushana dynasty.

The other three phases are assumed to be from AD 240-300, 300-400 and 400-460, with Sassanian impact in the second, Indian influence from Mathura in the third and Sassanian influence again in the last. This classification, however, is problematical and arbitrary. Nonetheless, it appears certain that Kanishka’s companionship with Gandhara art has to be tracked to its blooming stage rather than to its beginning or its end. Despite the Western impact, Gandhara art continued to flourish distinctly in India with the Buddha and Buddhism dominating it comprehensively.

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Saivism: Origin, Principles, and Kinds

The Vedic Age

Historically, Hindu Literature, that is Hindu texts because ‘literature’ is a body that consists of texts (in the form of poetry or prose), can be classified into two broad categories:

• Shruti: Shruti, meaning ‘that which is heard’, refers to those ancient religious texts which did not have any particular author and which comprised the core values of Hinduism. Shruti, in Hindu tradition, has been referred to as apauruseya (authorless). The works which fall under the category of Shruti, covering much of the history of Hinduism, initiate with the earliest known texts and end in the early historical period with the later Upanishads.

Shruti as a body of ancient religious texts comprises the four Vedas that in turn includes its four types of embedded texts– the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the early Upanishads.

• Smriti: meaning ‘that which is remembered’. Smiritis are human thoughts in response to the Shrutis and they are traditionally regarded to be rooted in Shrutis. The Smriti literature consists of Vedangas, the Hindu epics, Sutras and Shestras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kavya literature, the Bhasyas, and many Nibanshas covering arts, culture, politics, ethics, and society.

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The Vedas

The Vedas, a vast body of Hindu literature, originated in ancient India before about 300 BCE. As Sanskrit is ordinarily applied to the whole ancient and sacred language of India in its Vedas and classical forms, the texts of Vedas are composed forms, the texts in Vedic Sanskrit.

Vedic Sanskrit differed from the classical Sanskrit as the Greek of Homer from of Attic Greek. The Vedic means of grammatical form is more rich and less fixed than that of Sanskrit. However, many case forms and verbal forms of Vedic grammar lost in Sanskrit.

In its phonetic structure, the Rig Vedic language had the same sounds as classical Sanskrit. With the passage of time, there was a change from the main Aryan Language to that of the Vedas and classical Sanskrit and later on to Pali and Prakrit. However, Sanskrit continued with an independent existence throughout the period of ancient India, but only as the language of the elite or Sistas.

There are four Vedas: The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda has been sub-divided into four major text types: the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.

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Rigveda: The Rigveda, a component of the large body of Hindu literature, is one of the four sacred texts (known as ‘shrutis’) of Hinduism. It contains 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses. It contains ‘stanzas of praise’ and also ‘blessings and curses’ as well most of the stanzas which form the melodies of the Samveda. The earlier name of the Rigveda is Richah (‘stanzas of praise’).

Yajurveda: The Yajurveda is the Veda of prose mantras. As a component of the large body of Hindu literature, this ancient Vedic Sanskrit text is a compilation of ritual offering Mantras (formulas). Its composition, as estimated by scholars, is to be around 1200 to 1000 BCE.

The Yajurveda has been sub-divided into two groups namely, the black Yajurveda (Krishna) and the White Yajurveda (Shukla). The term ‘black’ implies unclear, unarranged and the term ‘white’ implies, clear, arranged. Yajurveda includes in itself one of the largest Brahmana texts ‘the Stapatha Brahmana’. The earlier name of Yajurveda is Yajumshi (liturgical stanzas and formulae).

Samaveda: The Samaveda is the Veda of melodies and chants. As a part of the Hindu literature and a liturgical text, the Samaveda consists of 1,875 verses that are primarily taken from the Rigveda. It is so, the Samaveda is considered merely a collection of a certain kind of stanza of praise, derived from the Rigveda with some variations and additions and set to music. The earlier name of the  Samaveda is Saman

Atharvaveda: As a late addition to the Hindu literature, to the Atharvaveda contains 730 hymns with almost 6,000 mantras (poetic stanzas and ritualistic formulae of the Vedas are known as ‘mantras’). It is the “knowledge storehouse of the procedures for everyday life”. About a sixth of its texts have been adapted from the verses of the Rig Veda. It has been compiled in about 1200 BC-1000 BC. Its earlier name is Atharvangirasah.

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Upanishads:

The Upanishads, collection of texts of Hindu literature, contain the core philosophical concepts of Hinduism. They are commonly mentioned as Vedanta, meaning either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object of the Veda. The central ideas of all Upanishads comprise the concepts of Brahmana (the Ultimate Reality) and Atman (soul, self).

The most important and the oldest are the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads. In the former Upanishads, the meditation on the sacred symbol OM is stressed. The Katha Upanishad that narrates the story of Nachiketas and the three gifts he got from the god of death, says “higher than the senses are the material things, higher than the material things is the mind, higher than the mind is the intellect, higher than the intellect is the is the great self (atman)”.

Brahmanas

As a collection of ancient Indian texts of Hindu Literature, the Brahmanas are commentaries on the hymns of the four Vedas. They are bulky expositions of the sacrificial ceremonial describing it in its minute detail, its value and its potency. They are written in connected prose.

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The Rig Veda has two Brahmanas, the Aitarey and the Kaushitakim or Sankhayana. Sometimes the matter in the Brahmanas is linked with the text of Samhita, otherwise, it is independent of Samhita. Each Vedic Shakha has its own Brahmanas.

Brahmanas are principally known for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals. The oldest of Brahmanas is dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest were completed by about 700 BCE.

Aranyakas

As a component of the ancient texts of Hindu literature, the Aranyakas are the philosophy behind the ritual sacrifice part of the Vedas. They were either recited by sages living in the forests or conveyed by the teacher to his pupils in the solitude of the forests.

Aranyakas are sometimes called Karma-Kanda (ritualistic action). In the huge body of ancient Hindu literature, there is no true distinction between Aranyakas and Brahmanas.

There are mainly two types of Aryanakas:

Aitareya Aryanaka: it belongs to the Aitareya Shakha of Rig Veda. There are five chapters in this Aryanaka.

Taittiriya Aryanaka: it comprises ten chapters and belongs to the Taittiriya Shakha of the Black Yajurveda.

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