It can be appropriately claimed that the Mauryan administration system, though monarchical, was sufficient because it had the privilege of possessing successful administrators such as Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara Maurya and Ashoka. The King, as the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan Empire, had the supreme executive, legislative and judicial powers and functions in the administration.

It was the responsibility of the Mauryan King, as the head of the executive, to maintain social order by punishing guilty. He was also accountable for the safety and security of his kingdom. Protecting the life and property of his subjects (people of the kingdom) was also the part of his duty.

As the head of the administration the king formulated the general lines of policy which his subordinate officers were bound to follow. He selected ministers and other officers of the royal administration.

As the head of the judicial department, it was the duty of the Mauryan king to ensure justice to the people and rectify their grievances. However, the vastness of the Mauryan Empire restrained the king from personally settling all the cases himself. But as his was the final court of appeal he issued final judgement.

Must Read: History of India in a nutshell

To hear appeals from the people the king of the Mauryan Empire often spent whole day in the court and during this period they even did never care for their personal amenities. King Ashoka the Great made several reforms in the judicial system of the Mauryan Empire. The king had the sovereign power of law making and also the power and right to suspend customs and justice.

As the head of the Military administration of the Mauryan Empire, the king was the supreme commander of the army. The king was not only the ultimate authority of the bureaucracy, but he was also the head of the revenue system of the Mauryan Empire.

No one can deny that kings of Mauryan Empire possessed huge power. However, there were still some limitations upon the royal authority.

Also Read: Who were the Mauryas?

Limitations of Mauryan Empire were:

• Before Ashoka the Mauryan Empire was primarily a Hindu State. According to the Hindu concept, the Supreme Sovereign of the State was Dharma or law and the king had to act as its guardian. The king never dared to challenge the ancient laws and practices.
• In the Mauryan Empire there was a Mantri Parishad in place, whose function was to aid and advice the king. He, in ordinary times, could defy the advice of the officers of this Mantri Parishad, but in times of emergency it was binding on him to listen to the individual and collective advice of his ministers.
• In the Mauryan Empire the Brahmins had huge influence over the king who often dared not to disobey them. Instead he always looked for their support.

As the Mauryan Administration was decentralized in nature, the officials of the provincial administration had the right to be consulted by the king especially in all provincial matters.

Because of the vastness of the Empire the king had to depend on the council of minister for discharging his responsibility and for the success of the Mauryan administration.

Also Read: Important Battles in the Indian History

The council of Ministers of the Mauryan Empire were known as the Mantri Parishad. The number of its ministers was not fixed and varied according to needs. Kautily supported a large Council according to the need of the empire. The aspirant members, to show their ability, had to go through tests of religion, love, fear, and money to qualify for becoming the full-fledged members of the Mantri Parishad.

In the Mauryan Empire there was an efficient and well organized hierarchy of bureaucrats belonging to central executive, judicial and revenue officers for efficient central administration of Mauryan government.

The functions of the Mauryan Empire administrative system were carried forward by several departments. Each of these departments, in turn, was led by a superintendent (Adhyaksha). The Adhakshya was assisted by a band of clerks, accountants and spies etc. for the smooth functioning of the department.

There were two other posts, in addition to the posts of Adhyakshas, of high ranking in Mauryan Administrative System – the “Samaharta” and the “Sannidhata”. The Samaharta was the collector general of revenue for the whole of the Mauryan Empire. And Sannidhata was the office-in-charge of the treasury and store.

Don’t Miss: Timeline of Maurya Empire

The Swadeshi movement had its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the British decision to partition Bengal. The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi movement was made on August 7, 1905, at a meeting held at the Calcutta Town hall and continued up to 1911. At the August 7 meeting, the famous Boycott resolution was passed. The boycott was first suggested by Krishan Kumar Mitra in Sanjivani in 1905. The Swadeshi movement started with the partition of Bengal by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. 1905

Read Also: National Movement of India: 1905 to 1920

Phrases of Swadeshi Movement

• 1905 to 1909 – Movement confined to Bengal and launched a protest movement
• 1909 to 1910 – Countrywide spread of movement and launching of anti-colonial movement
• 1910 to 1911 – Swadeshi movement merged with the revolutionary terrorist movement of the first phase and led to the foundation of numerous secret associations.

The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of Swadeshi and to buy Indian products only. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations, public meetings, and resolutions were not in of an something more concrete was needed and the answer was swadeshi and boycott.

The Swadeshi movement, part of the Indian independence movement and the developing Indian nationalism, was an economic strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by following the principles of swadeshi, which had some success. Strategies of the Swadeshi movement involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production processes. It was strongest in Bengal and was also called Vande Mataram movement.

An important aspect of the swadeshi movement was the emphasis placed on self-reliance or atmasaki. Self-reliance meant assertion of national dignity, honour, and self-confidence.

Must Read: Indian National Movement

Leaders of the Swadeshi movement beyond Bengal

• Punjab – Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh
• Delhi – Syed Haider Raza
• Madras – Chidambaram Pillai
• Maharastra – Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
• Andhra – Harisarvottam Rao

Swadeshi Movement and National Education

• Setting of the Bengal Technical Institute
• Emphasis on education through vernacular medium
• Setting up of a National Council Of Education on August 15, 1906
• The opening of the way National College at Calcutta with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principle.
• Efforts of Rabindranath Tagore’s Shantiniketan and Satish Mukherjee’s Dawn Society to combine the traditional and modern systems of education.

The Swadeshi movement was suppressed by the British through repressive measures like imprisonment and deportation of many of the Swadeshi leaders. The main purpose of Swadeshi was to provide employment to the people, encourage the existing indigenous industries towards the prosperity and simultaneously work for the welfare of the people. The Swadeshi was used for the first time in 1716 during the period of Peshwa by Goudpad Charya in Nasik (Kesari, January 30, 1906).

Don’t Miss:

Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movement

Indian Renaissance & The Socio-Cultural Awakening

Emergence of Gandhi

Following is the list of Governor Generals and Viceroys of India. It is also mentioning important works and policies during their tenure. The list has three parts Governor Generals of Bengal, Governor Generals of India and Viceroys of India.

Governor Generals of Bengal

Warren Hastings (1772-1785)

• First Governor General of Bengal
• Brought the Dual Government of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
• Deprived Zamindars of their judicial power and Civil and Criminal court were established.
• Maintenance of records was made compulsory.
• Great patron of oriental learning founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. He wrote introduction to the English translation of ‘The Gita’ by Charles Wilkins.
• Impeachment proceedings started against him when he returned on the charges of taking bridge. After a trial of 7 years, he was finally acquitted.

Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

• Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System)
• First person to codify laws. The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of Justice.
• Police Reforms: Each district was divided into 400 sq. miles and placed under a police superintendent.
• The civil service was brought into existence.

Sir John Shore (1793-1798)

Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)

• Adopted the police of Subsidiary Alliance- a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British the paramount power.
• The states that accepted this policy were the Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja of Tanjore, the Nawab at Awadh, the Peshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs of Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc.

George Barlow (1805-1807)

Lord Minto 1 (1807-1813)

• Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).
• Charter Act 1813 was passed

Lord Hastings (1813-1823)

Lord Amherst (1823-1828)

Also Read: Governor Generals of Bengal

Governor Generals of India

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

• Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and Elimination of Thugs (1830)
• Made English the medium of higher education in the country (after the recommendations of Macaulay).
• Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
• Charter Act 1833 was passed, made him the First Governor of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)

• Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).

Lord Auckland (1836-1842)

• The most important event of his reign was the first Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848)

Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)

• Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (From Bombay to Thane).
• Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was From Calcutta to Agra).
• Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
• Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which mode communication easier.
• Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.
• Made Shimla the summer capital.
• Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
• Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
• In 1854, ‘Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.
• Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of window was legalized by Window Remarriage Act, 1856.

Also Read: India under Governor generals

Viceroys of India

Lord Canning (1856-1862)

• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
• Mutiny took place in his time.
• On November 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
• Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
• The University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
• Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.

Lord Elgin (1862-1863)

Lord Lawrence (1864-1869)

• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
• High court was established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
• Expanded canal work and railways.
• Created the Indian Forest Department.

Lord Mayo (1869-1872)

• Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
• Established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian Princes.
• For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
• Organished the Statistical Survey of India.
• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872-1876)

Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

• Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters.
• Organished the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser-I-Hind’.
• Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

• Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
• Repealed the Vernacular Press Act (1882).
• Took steps to improve primary and secondary education (on William Hunter Commission’s recommendations).
• The 1 Factory Act (1891), aimed at prohibiting child labour.
• Passed the Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European Criminals. But this was withdrawn later.

Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

• Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• 2^nd Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hour for men.
• Categorization of Civil Service into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
• Indian Council Act 1892 was passed.
• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

• Great famine of 1896-1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

• Passed the Indian University Act 1904 in which official control over the Universities was increased.
• Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces – Bengal (proper), East Bengal and Assam.
• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province.
• The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province (NWEP).
• Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore India’s culture heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established.
• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India an a gold standard.
• Extended railways to a great extent.

Lord Minto (1905-1910)

• There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent Mandalay jail in Burma.
• The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley-Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910-1916)

• Held a durbar in December, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.
• Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911) t, capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
• A bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt (Dec.13, 1919).
• Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915).
• Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

• August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian Government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people.
• The Government of India Act in 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford) was passed.
• Rowlatt Act of 1919, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April13, 1919).
• Non-Cooperation Movement.
• An Indian Sir S.P. Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
• A Women’s University was founded at Poona in 1916.
• Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.

Lord Reading (1921-1926)

• Rowlatt act was repealed along with the Press act of 1910.
• Suppressed non-cooperation movement.
• Prince of walse visited India in November, 1921.
• Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
• Ahmadabad session of 1921.
• Formation of Swaraj Party.
• Vishwabharti University started functioning in 1922.
• Communal riots of 1923-25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
• Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

• Simon Commission visited India in 1929.
• Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
• Dandi March (March5, 1930).
• First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.
• Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)

• Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931.
• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan., 1932.
• Communal Award (August16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on an epic fast in protest against this division.
• Third Round Table Conference in 1932.
• Poona Pact was signed.
• Government of India Act (1935) was passed.

Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

• Government of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till October 1939, when they gave offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the 2 World War. The Muslim League observed the day as ‘Deliverance Day’ (22December).
• Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.
• Outbreak of World War 2 in 1939.
• Cripps Mission in 1942
• Quit India Movement plan (May16, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944-1947)

• Arranged the Shimla Conference on June25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League, failed.
• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Government was appointed under Nehru.
• First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on December 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (March 1947-August 1947)

• Last viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
• Partition of India decided by the June 3 plan.
• Indian Independence Act passed by the British Parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independence on August 15, 1947.
• Retired in June 1948 and was succeeded by C. Rajgopalachari.

C. Rajgopalachari (1947-1950)

• The first and last Indian Governor General of Independent India.

Following are details of their works: