We have a curated list of the most noteworthy articles from all across the globe. With any subscription plan, you get access to exclusive articles that let you stay ahead of the curve.
We have a curated list of the most noteworthy articles from all across the globe. With any subscription plan, you get access to exclusive articles that let you stay ahead of the curve.
We have a curated list of the most noteworthy articles from all across the globe. With any subscription plan, you get access to exclusive articles that let you stay ahead of the curve.
We have a curated list of the most noteworthy articles from all across the globe. With any subscription plan, you get access to exclusive articles that let you stay ahead of the curve.
Art during the Middle Ages was different based on the location in Europe as well as the period of time. However, in general, Middle Age art can be divided up into three main periods and styles: Byzantine Art, Romanesque Art, and Gothic Art. Much of the art in Europe during the Middle Ages was religious art with Catholic subjects and themes. The different types of art included painting, sculpture, metal work, engraving, stained glass windows, and manuscripts.
The end of the Middle Ages is often signaled by a great change in art with the start of the Renaissance Period.
The start of the Middle Ages is often called the Dark Ages. This is the period of time from 500 to 1000 AD. The main form of art during that time was Byzantine art produced by artists from the Eastern Roman Empire, also called Byzantium.
Byzantine art was characterized by its lack of realism. The artists did not try to make their paintings realistic but focused on the symbolism of their art. Paintings were flat with no shadows and the subjects were generally very serious and somber. The subjects of the paintings were almost entirely religious with many paintings being of Christ and the Virgin Mary.
Romanesque Art
The period of Romanesque Art started around 1000 AD and lasted to around 1300 with the beginning of the Gothic Art period. Art prior to that is called pre-Romanesque. Romanesque art was influenced by both the Romans and Byzantine Art. Its focus was on religion and Christianity. It included architectural details like stained glass art, large murals on walls and domed ceilings, and carvings on buildings and columns. It also included illuminated manuscript art and sculpture.
Gothic art grew out of Romanesque art. Gothic artists began to use brighter colors, dimensions and perspective and moved toward more realism. They also began to use more shadows and light in their art and tried out new subject matters beyond just religion including animals in mythic scenes.
Artists of the Middle Ages
Many of the artists from the early Middle Ages are unknown to us. Some of the most famous lived during the latter part of the Middle Ages and are often considered to be part of the beginning of the Renaissance. Here are a few artists that made a name for themselves at the end of the Middle Ages:
Donatello – An Italian sculpture known for his statues of David, Mary Magdalene, and the Madonna.
Giotto – Italian artist from the 13th century famous for his frescos in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy.
Benvenuto di Giuseppe – Also called Cimabue, this Italian artist from Florence was known for his paintings and mosaics.
Ambrogio Lorenzetti – An Italian painter of the Gothic movement, he is famous for his frescoes, the Allegory of Good Government and the Allegory of Bad Government.
The majority of the literature produced during the Middle Ages was written by religious clerics and monks. Few other people knew how to read and write. Much of what they wrote was hymns, or songs, about God. Some also wrote philosophical documents about religion. One of the most popular books of the Middle Ages was the Golden Legend, by an archbishop of Genoa Jacobus de Voragine. It told stories about the lives of the Saints during Medieval times. Some secular, meaning non-religious, books were written as well.
Here a few of the more famous literary works from the Middle Ages:
Beowulf – Unknown author. This Epic poem was written in England but tells the story of the hero Beowulf in Scandinavia.
The Canterbury Tales – by Geoffrey Chaucer. A series of tales that portray Chaucer’s view of English society at the time.
Caedmon’s Hymn – This hymn, recorded by a monk, is the oldest surviving Old English poem.
The Divine Comedy – by Dante Alighieri. Often considered one of the greatest works in world literature, this story describes Dante’s view of the afterlife.
The Book of Margery Kempe – by Margery Kempe. This book is considered to be the first autobiography written in English.
The Ecclesiastical History of the English People – by Venerable Bede. This history of the English church earned Bede the title “Father of English History”.
The Decameron – by Giovanni Boccaccio. This book has a number of stories and describes life in 14th century Italy.
The Travels of Marco Polo – by Marco Polo. This book tells the story of how Marco Polo traveled to the far east and China.
Le Morte d’Arthur – by Sir Thomas Malory. This book tells the story of legendary King Arthur.
Piers Plowman – by William Langland. This allegorical poem tells of a man in search of the true Christian life.
Garima Lohia’s ( 24year old) journey to the top 2nd UPSC rankings is a testament to her unwavering determination and relentless and hardwork blessings of her late father.
Hailing from Bihar’s Buxar, a state with immense talent and potential, Garima faced her fair share of challenges. However, she never allowed these obstacles to deter her from pursuing her dream of serving the nation through the civil services.
Educational Background and Preparation:
Garima’s strong academic foundation played a pivotal role in her success. She completed her schooling in Bihar, where she exhibited exemplary dedication and consistency in her studies.
Garima then pursued higher education, earning a degree in Political Science from a reputed institution. Her educational background gave her a solid understanding of the subject matter crucial for the UPSC examination.
She devoted long hours to studying and covered a wide range of subjects, including history, geography, economics, and current affairs. Garima’s commitment to self-study and her disciplined approach enabled her to grasp complex concepts effectively.
The Unwavering Support of a Mother
Garima’s father, Manoj Kumar Lohia, passed away in 2015, leaving behind a wife and three children. The loss of a loved one can be emotionally and financially devastating.
The loss of a loved one can be emotionally and financially devastating, mother ensured that all three of us attained good education. my elder sister at the young age of 20 started working to financially support the family. Every member of the family has contributed to the success,”
Garima recalls the unwavering support of her mother, who played a pivotal role in her success
she said in one interview, that her mother (51) stood like a wall between her and the negativity hurled at her by society. “The community may have tried to demotivate me but my mother never let it get to me and always filtered out the negativity from around me.
She could not clear the UPSC prelims examination on the first attempt and continued to prepare even harder for the next year’s exam. Even before the results of the UPSC exam 2022 were announced last month, Garima said that she was sure of her success but never imagined that she would get the second rank.
There are many International Environmental Organizations like World Wildlife Fund (WWF) that are working for the protection of our environment. The biggest among them is the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources or the IUCN that was founded in 1948 with its headquarters in Switzerland.
IUCN
IUCN has, according to the latest information, brought together 84 states, 111 government agencies, 764 NGOs (Non-Government Organizations), 83 international organizations, and about 10,000 experts and scientists from all over the world.
IUCN, that is made of three parts- its member organization, its scientific commissions and its professional secretariat to preserve nature, conserve natural wealth and to utilize natural resources carefully. Only then can we make sure that we pass on the earth’s beautiful and charming gifts to the children of future.
IUCN maintains an international list of species facing extinction, published bearing the name of the Red Data Book, in which the species are classified into different categories according to the risk they face. Each Red Data Book generally deals with a specific group of animals or plants, whether they are raptiles, insects or mosses. Red Data Books are now being published in many different countries.
It was founded by the United Nations as a special agency to deal with issues affecting the environment. It was set-up in June 1972,, as a direct result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, and is headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP has six regional offices and various country offices.
UNEP leads and encourages partnership among nations and people in caring for the environment, by inspiring, informing, and enabling peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising the welfare of future generations.
The activities of UNEP cover a wide range of issues related to atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems. One of its most famous projects is the development of the Solar loan programme that assisted about 100,000 people in getting finance for solar power systems in India.
Another significant project of UNEP was the Marshland Project in the Middle East that warned the international community to the annihilation of the Marshland.
When Sir Julian Huxley, the renowned British biologist, went to Africa for a research trip. What he did sea there, shook him completely. He was dismayed by the unclenched destruction of nature and the hunting of endangered species.
When Sir Huxley returned in 1960, he shared his concern, that many species would become extinct it the condition persists in Africa, with fellow scientist and other prominent personalities. Finally they agreed to begin an international organization with the scientific, technical and financial resources to conduct and fund conservation efforts across the globe.
In 1961, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was created. Sir Huxley and Sir Peter Scott, the famous ornithologist who created the Panda logo, were among the founder members of World Wildlife Fund.
World Wildlife Fund, over the following decades, has developed into the largest privately financed international conservation organization in the world. The World Wildlife Fund, in 1986, by changing its name became the World Wildlife Fund for Nature. In more than 100 countries, backed by team of scientists and policy experts in national offices across the World, World Wildlife Fund field staffs work on various projects.
The aims of the World Wildlife Fund are to halt the destruction of the earth’s natural environment and to prepare a future in which all human beings can live in harmony with nature. World Wildlife Fund does this by protecting all forms of life on earth, and making sure that the earth’s natural resources like water and forests are not consumed faster than they can be renewed. World Wildlife Fund encourages the people to curtail the amount of waste they normally produce, and to cut down on pollution.
When, in 1961, the World Wildlife Fund was being created, a giant Panda, Chi-Chi, arrived at the London Zoo that became the inspiration for the panda in WWF’s world’s recognized logo. Sir Peter Scott, one of WWF’s founders, who had drawn the first logo said “we wanted an animal that is beautiful, is endangered, and tone loved by people around the world. We also wanted an animal that symbolized all that was disappearing in the natural world.
It is an international organization that was set up to make the people of the world aware of the America use of the Aleutian Island as a nuclear test site and the dangers of nuclear testing. It was established in 1971 in Vancouver, Canada.
After accomplishing its objective of protest against nuclear testing in the Aleutian Island, Greenpeace widened to include the protection of the ozone layer by curbing the use of ozone depleting chemicals, and the prohibition of the dumping of waste in the Oceans.
Greenpeace also aims to protect ancient forests and the environment by banishing the use of hazardous chemicals that damage humans, animals and plants. It seeks to halt the hunting of whales that face extinction organism into nature.
Through the movement of Greenpeace began in 1970, Greenpeace international or GPI, as it presently exists, was set up in 1971 with its headquarters in Holland. GPI remains at the centre of a closely knit network of national and regional offices.
Once a campaign is chosen, it becomes the job of the GPI campaign Director to plan and execute the campaign. Some national offices can run their separate campaigns too. For instance, the UK has a campaign to prohibit the use of incinerators to burn rubbish, while Canada is pursuing with a campaign to save ancient forest.
GENERAL ISSUES ON ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY, BIO-DIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Agricultural Sustainability And Green Farming
If all the global issues are taken together, nothing draws more attention than political and economic upheavals as well as climate change and food security. While political and economic upheavals seem to be of temporary nature, climate change and food security are going to have long-term implications and call for both immediate and sustained effort by people across the globe, because both the issues are vital for our existence itself. Since the time man came to know about the benefits of organised living, he has unscrupulously used the bounties of nature and this practice continues in a great measure today also. Only a few conscientious people are determined to educate the vast majority on the dangers that are involved. Until not very long ago, the people, both laypersons and scientists were not aware of the phenomena like ozone depletion, extinction of numerous species due to loss of habitation and change brought about by human interference and the dangers that have been looming large over the centuries as a result of man’s insatiable passion for development which wreaks havoc in its wake. It is ironic that so long as man had been ignorant of modern farm practices, he had stuck to the farming that is now thought of being sustainable and beneficial in the long term. For example, organic farming was the original type of agriculture that had been practised from time immemorial. The other form of farming, called forest gardening which is a fully organic food production system which dates back to prehistoric times, is now thought to be the world’s most resilient agrosystem. It was in the mid-1920s in Central Europe that the work of Rudolf Steiner gave birth to an organic movement, because people became aware of the fact that the inorganic methods, introduced by the industrial revolution, were to some extent not well developed and had serious side effects too. Rudolf Steiner had introduced biodynamic agriculture which was a precursor of organic farming. What is referred to today as organic farming was, in fact, developed through the work of Albert Howard in England in the 1940s. Albert Howard had developed an aversion to agriculture’s growing dependence on synthetic fertilisers.
In his inauguration address at the 27th Indian Engineering Congress on the theme “Engineering for Sustainable Development and Inclusive Growth: Vision 2025” at Vigyan Bhavan, Delhi on December 14, 2012, Hon’ble President Mr. Pranab Mukherjee said that poverty and degraded environment are closely inter-related. He stressed the fact that several traditional practices »that are sustainable and environment- friendly continue to be part of the lives of people in the developing countries. According to him, these need to be encouraged, rather than replaced by more modern but unsustainable practices and technologies. He expressed the view that the integration of agriculture with land, water management, and ecosystem conservation is essential for both environmental sustainability and agricultural production.
When one talks of green farming or eco-farming stressed by the scientists and experts recendy, organic farming acquires a central place. It is the form of farming that relies on techniques such as crop- rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control. Organic farming makes use of fertilisers and pesticides, but excludes or puts a limit on use of manufactured (synthetic) fertilisers, pesticides (which comprise herbicides, insecticides and fungicides), plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, genetically modified organisms, human sewage sludge, and nanomaterial. The concept of clean or eco-friendly agriculture has caught the imagination of farmers in many countries and is being promoted by small, well-organised groups. But it is still not popular among the farm community in India. If we analyse, we find that some of the major farming States, e.g. Punjab and Haryana, have been laying more stress on mass production of food grain and other farm products. In their effort, they have never paid any importance to their quality and related aspects. They have been doing so, because of the fact some decades ago, India was an extensively food-grain- deficit country. India had to depend on the developed countries and imported food grain. If we look back, we find that before the 1960s, the use of pesticides was negligible. After the Green Revolution, pesticides became the indispensable part of farming. Farmers started extensive use of pesticides, weedicides and insecticides in the 1980s and by the mid-1990s they became synonymous with farming.
Organic farmers depend on biological pest control, the use of beneficial organisms to reduce pest populations. Examples of beneficial insects are minute pirate bugs, and to lesser extent, ladybugs, big-eyed bugs— which eat a number of pests. Besides, praying mantis and predatory mites are very effective in controlling other mites. When pests go out of control, organic farmers do use a pesticide. With some exceptions, naturally occurring pesticides are used by farmers and synthetic substances are prohibited. Pesticides with different modes of action should be rotated to minimise development of pesticide resistance. Naturally derived insecticides used for green and organic farming are Bacillus thuringiensis, pyrethrum (a chrysanthemum extract), spinosad (a bacterial metabolite), neem and rotenone (a legume root extract). Though rotenone and pyrethrum are sometimes referred to as green pesticides, yet they are not necessarily harmless, so they are used in very rare cases. They are however, safer and more eco-friendly than synthetic pesticides. Rotenone, it has been found, is extremely toxic to fish and can induce symptoms resembling those of Parkinson’s disease in mammals. Naturally derived fungicides used in organic farming include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus and the fungus Trichoderma harzianum. These are mainly effective for diseases affecting roots. Scientists have found that caprylic acid, naturally occurring fatty acid in milk and coconuts as well as other natural plant extracts have anti-microbial characteristics. Compost tea contains a mix of beneficial microbes which may attack or outcompete certain plant pathogens. But it has also been found that variability among formulations and preparation methods may yield inconsistent results and in some cases, dangerous growth of toxic microbes in compost teas. All of naturally derived pesticides are not used in green or organic farming. They are: nicotine sulphate, arsenic, and strychnine. Some synthetic pesticides used in eco-friendly farming are insecticidal soaps and horticultural oils for insect management and Bordeaux mixture, copper hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate in fungi management. But scientists also warn against their excessive use, as it can be more environmentally problematic than the use of many synthetic fungicides. Repeated application of copper sulphate or copper hydroxide as a fungicide may lead to copper accumulation to toxic levels in soil. So much so that in the European Union, replacement of copper-based fungicides in green or eco-farming is a policy priority.
As it has been mentioned above, the use of pesticides owes its origin in India mainly to the 1980s and the main crop for which it was used extensively was cotton. In the 1980s, the cotton crop witnessed repeated attack of American bollworm. Farmers started searching a way out and they made use of all sorts of pesticides. Farmers who grew cotton got so desperate that many of them ended their lives. In the 1970s, indigenous varieties were replaced with hybrid varieties. It was the time when major pesticide companies set up their factories in Punjab and started aggressive promotion campaign. Farmers made extensive use of pesticides and their cotton production touched newer heights. After cotton, farmers turned to other crops such as paddy, wheat and sugarcane. The use of pesticides thus became a trend.
Similarly, in Punjab and Haryana, farmers started using weedicides in the 1980s. Earlier, they used to remove weeds manually. In green, organic or eco-friendly farming, weed management involves weed suppression, rather than weed elimination. This is done by enhancing competition or phytotoxic effects on weeds. In green farming, cultural, biological, mechanical, physical and chemical tactics are integrated. Weed’s growth is stopped and impeded without synthetic herbicides. For green or organic farming, it is necessary that a single crop should not be grown in the same location without a different or intervening crop. Crop rotation provides weed-suppressive cover crops and crops with dissimilar life cycles to discourage weeds with a particular crop. Farmers increase soil organic matter content, which can support microorganisms that destroy common weed seeds. Weeds can also be controlled by grazing. For example, geese can be used successfully to weed a range of organic crops including cotton, strawberries, tobacco and corn. Rice farmers can introduce ducks and fish to wet paddy fields to eat both weeds and insects. Some naturally sourced chemicals are also used as weedicides. These include acetic acid (concentrated vinegar), corn gluten meal, and essential oils. Some selective bioherbicides have also been developed.
Soil management also plays a pivotal role in green farming. As we know, plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as well as micronutrients and symbiotic relationships with fungi and other organisms to flourish, but getting enough nitrogen at the right time is a challenge for green farming. Crop rotation and green manure (cover crops) help to provide nitrogen through legumes which fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria. Intercropping can increase soil nutrients substantially. Crop residues can be ploughed back into the soil, and different plants leave different amounts of nitrogqn, potentially aiding synchronisation. Green or organic farming involves use of animal manure, certain processed fertilisers such as seed meal and various mineral powders such as rock phosphate and greensand, a naturally occurring form of potash which provides potassium. Soil erosion can be controlled through these methods. Mixed farms with both livestock and crops can operate as ley farms, whereby the land gathers fertility through growing nitrogen-fixing forage grasses such as white clover or alfalfa and grows cash crops or cereals when fertility is established. Stockless farms or farms without livestock find it more difficult to maintain fertility, as they have to rely on external inputs such as imported manure as well as grain legumes and green manures. Biological research on soil and soil organisms has proved beneficial to green or organic farming. A number of bacteria and fungi break down chemicals, plant matter and animal waste into productive soil nutrients. Fields with little or no manure yield lower crops due to decreased soil microbe community providing healthier and more arable soil systems.
Sustainable farming, the ability of a farm to produce food indefinitely with little or no harm to its ecosystem, is catching on across the developed nations, Interest is driven by consumer demand for locally grown, organic and sustainable products. In fact, farmers have always been good managers of the land, but now they are being paid for it. Now, more and more farmers do not till their fields, after fall harvests. Leaving crop residue in place adds nutrients to soil and helps it retain moisture. Some farmers plant grasses that give nutrients, back to the soil. While rich farmers use inorganic methods to grow crops in Tndia, farmers with small holdings and marginal farmers are still mostly practising organic methods, passed down for millennia. Organic fertilisers and natural pest control measures are the only tools available to most of these farmers, who have always lacked the financial resources to explore chemical solutions. But these farmers, whose produce is as organic as they are supposed to be, cannot afford to pay the fees required to get official certification. As a result, they do not get the price for their produce they are entitled or supposed to get. On the other hand, eight chemicals were identified in the basmati rejected by the United States. Among these were traces of pesticides such as isoprothiolane, tricydazole and bavistan. India is an exporter of food-grain- related commodities worth Rs. 1 lakh crore per annum. Rice alone is exported to the tune of over 7 million tonnes (2011-12), including 3.2 million tonnes of basmati. The efforts being made by various institutions have failed to achieve desired goals. This has taken place despite the parameters fixed by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. As India is a very vast country, sustained campaign is needed and this calls for awareness on the part of every responsible and conscious citizen. Not that people have not realised the need of sustainable agriculture at all. The first Organic Food Mela of Delhi, which was organised jointly by “People For Animals” and The Indian’ Expresson December 16, 2012, bears testimony to the fact that people have started paying heed to the need of the hour, though not overwhelmingly.
We all know that agriculture is the provider of livelihood for nearly half of our working population. Studies done at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute indicate the possibility of the loss of 4-5 million tonnes in wheat production for every 1°C rise in temperature throughout the growing period. Losses for other crops are uncertain, but are expected to be smaller for the kharif crops. Agriculture sector contributes 18 percent of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from India. The emissions are primarily due to methane from the rice paddies, enteric fermentation in ruminant animals, and nitrous oxides from the application of manures and fertilisers. Although relative proportion of emissions from agriculture in India is likely to show considerable reduction in future because of the larger emissidn growth in other sectors, adaptation for agricultural communities will remain a major concern. The Twelfth Plan document clearly says that some policy and programmatic interventions can help farmers and other stakeholders adapt to climate change and reduce the losses. Change in cropping patterns, for example, can help adjustment to changes in mean temperature and precipitation. Amongst the key actions for adapting Indian agriculture to climate change are improved land management practices, development of resource conserving technologies, development of crop varieties that can withstand climate-stress, effective risk management through early warning, credit-insurance support to farmers and nutritional strategies for managing heat stress in dairy animals. Complementary actions in terms of identification of cost-effective opportunities for reducing methane generation, emissions in ruminants by modification of diet, and in rice paddies by water and nutrient management will help make adaptation measures sustainable. New policies should support the new land use arrangements, enhance investment in water harvesting, promote small-farm mechanisation and efficient water use technologies. A package of financial incentives for improved land management, including resource conservation (water, carbon, energy) and balanced fertiliser use may facilitate quicker adoption of these measures.
