Nalanda University was an ancient higher-learning institution in Bihar, India. The site is located about 88 kilometres southeast of Patna and was a religious centre of learning from the fifth century AD to 1197 AD. Nalanda flourished between the reign of the Śakraditya (whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumara Gupta I  or Kumara Gupta II) and 1197 AD, supported by patronage from the Hindu Gupta Empire as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the Pala Empire.

Founded in the 5th Century A.D., Nalanda is known as the ancient seat of learning. 2,000 Teachers and 10,000 Students from all over the Buddhist world lived and studied at Nalanda, the first Residential International University of the World.

The university was considered an architectural masterpiece and was marked by a lofty wall and one gate. Nalanda had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with many other meditation halls and classrooms. On the grounds were lakes and parks.

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The university attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, China, Greece, and Greater Iran. Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk Dynasty under Ikhtiyar ad-Din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193. The great library of Nalanda was so vast that it is reported to have burned for three months after the invaders set fire to it, ransacked and destroyed the monasteries and drove the monks from the site.

The University of Nalanda was established during the reign of a king called Sakraditya, of the Gupta Dynasty.  Both Xuanzang and Prajnavarman cite him as the founder, as does a seal discovered at the site.

History of Nalanda University

The history of Nalanda university “falls into two main divisions—first, one of growth, development and fruition from the sixth century to the ninth, when it was dominated by the liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age; the second, one of gradual decline and final dissolution from the ninth century to the thirteen—a period when the tantric developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India.”

Nalanda was visited by both Mahavira and Buddha in sixth and fifth centuries B.C. It is also the place of birth and nirvana of Sariputra, one of the famous disciples of Buddha. Many of the famous Buddhist scholars had studied or taught at Nalanda including Nagarjuna formalised the concept of Sunyata, Dinnaga founder of Buddhist Logic, Dharmapala, the teacher of Xuanzang, Candrakīrti, Śīlabhadra, Dharmakirti logician Jinamitra, Santaraksita founded the first monastic order in Tibet, Padmasambhava master of Tantric Buddhism, Atisa.

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Courses at Nalanda University

The subjects taught at Nalanda University covered every field of learning. The courses offered at Nalanda included the study of scriptures of Mahayana and Hinayana Schools of Buddhism, Brahminical Vedic texts, Philosophy, logic theology, grammar, astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Its importance as a monastic university continued until the end of the 12th century. It attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. Nalanda eventually developed into the greatest ancient centre of Buddhist learning.

During the Pala period, the Nalanda was less singularly outstanding, as other Pala establishments “must have drawn away from a number of learned monks from Nalanda when all of them came under the aegis of the Palas.”

The library was destroyed in 1197–1203 during the Muslim invasion in which Bakhtiyar Khalji sacked it and set it to flames. According to Tibetan legend, the university and library were reportedly repaired shortly after by Muditabhadra, a Buddhist sage. Unfortunately, the library was again burned by Tirthankara mendicants.

India’s first Multimedia Museum was opened on 26 January 2008, which recreates the history of Nalanda using a 3D animation film narrated by Shekhar Suman.

Based on inspiration from ancient Nalanda University, Naropa University was established in 1974 at Boulder, Colorado in the United States of America.

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Some of Earliest Empires of this World, In this article we are going to take a brief introduction about Byzantine, Ottoman, Incas and Aztecs, and North American Indians.

The Byzantine Empire

Around 300 AD began the decline of the Roman Empire, and the Roman emperor Constantine moved his capital to Constantinople, now called Istanbul. It was here that he began establishing the Byzantine Empire one of the mighty earliest empires. Scholars came from all over Europe to study in Constantinople. Later, after the collapse of the remaining Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire began to expand. Emperor Justinian-I regained most of the Roman Empire and brought it under the Byzantine control. Christianity became the state religion and developing from Constantinople, it spread into Europe. Art and trade flourished during this period even through the empire faced and warded off many attacks. Around 635 AD the Arabs began attacking the empire and by 640 they had captured most of the Middle East and African territories. With this began the downfall of the empire and it collapsed completely when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1435.

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The Ottoman Empire

One of the earliest empires that ruled for a long period. The Ottoman Empire was founded by Turkish tribes with settled in modern day Turkey. The empire was named after the first Sultan called Osman. The Ottomans were basically Muslims but they allowed others religions to flourish in their empire. One of their most famous rulers was Suleiman-I. During his reign he reformed the legal and educational system of the empire reached its peak. The empire extended all along Northern Africa and Egypt in the South, the area between Italy, black sea, Persian Gulf and The Caspian Sea in the North and East. The borders of the empire was maintained with the help of skilled army of soldiers called ‘Janissaries’ and art, architecture, trading flourished in the period. Over the later years the regular attacks from the Russian in the East and Europeans in the North weakened the empire and it fell in the end of 19^th Century.

The Incas and Aztecs

The Incas were American Indian who settled in the Cuzco valley, on the western coast of South America. By the year 1525 their empire extended for more than 3000 kilometers along the western coast. The population lived of farming on terraces built on the mountain sides. The Incas were expert builders and they built famous city of Machu Pichu. They were also good weaver and wove cloth using llama wool. Besides these they were expert goldsmiths and made beautiful figurines of gold which they buried with their dead. The downfall of Inca empire begin in 1525 and by 1533 it was fully under Spanish control.

Further north in the area where Mexico is located, about 700 years ago, flourished the Aztec civilization. The Aztecs worshiped the sun god and made human sacrifices to please him. Aztecs too made beautiful jewellery from gold, pearls, turquoise etc. In 1519 first Spaniards arrived in Mexico and last of the Aztec emperor, Montezuma II, was captured and killed.

The North American Indians

It is not counted among earliest empires because of lack of imperialist nature. More than 20,000 years ago the first inhabitants of North America arrived from Asia. These people were called North American Indian. Indian mostly lead a nomadic life, they hunted animals and used meat for food. They lived in tents called Tepees, which were made from buffalo stretched over wooden poles. There were various Indian tribes which included Comanche, Apache, Cheyenne, Sioux, etc. The Indians spoke different languages in each tribe. The chief of each tribe wore a head dress made up of colorful feathers, other Indians in tribe wore feather depending upon their status. Their weapons included bows, arrows and small axes called tomahawks. When the European arrived, the Indians lost most of their tribal lands.

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ARCHITECTURE OF THE MUGHAL PERIOD

Most of the monuments of India that are recognised as the world heritage sites belong to the Mughal period. These are known especially for their architectural brilliance. The Mughal architecture was inspired from the Persian style of building. With the amalgamation of Indian techniques to this style a new style called INDO-ISLAMIC style of architecture emerged.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE:

The main characteristics of the Mughal architecture are facades with four-centred arches and semi-doomed roofs, vaults of intersecting arches, domes with inverted lotus tops, ornaments in marble carvings, PIETRA DURA (a technique used to create images with coloured stones) and so on.

All the monuments of the Mughal period possess the above characteristics. Even in the countries of Pakistan and Afghanistan, Nepal and Bangladesh also you can find the same features.

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FAMOUS ARCHITECTURAL WORKS:

The pioneer of the Mughal rule, Babur and his son Humayun had spent all their time in establishing the Mughal rule in India and thus didn’t contributed to the Mughal architecture. It was from the reign of Akbar that the Mughal architecture flourished like anything.

AKBAR’S PERIOD:

It was during the reign of Akbar that the Mughal architecture took a concrete form. Akbar was an enlightened patron of architecture. He encouraged the style of architecture with a mix of Indian and foreign styles. The main works of his time are:

HUMAYUN’S TOMB: This was the first monument built in the real Mughal style which was constructed in 1569 in Delhi. Standing on a high platform with typical Timurid design and Mughal scheme of Tomb gardens, the design of the tomb is of central Asian and Persian style.

AGRA FORT:It was the first major building project of Akbar’s time. The fort is an irregular semi-circle in a plan, with the massive wall built by huge blocks of RED SANDSTONE. The Hindu influence is strong in the style of building.

FATEHPUR SIKRI:The most remarkable architectural project of Akbar was the creation of the city FATEHPURSIKRI near AGRA, to commemorate the birth of his first son JAHANGIR. The buildings in the city are mostly built of Red Sand Stone.

The most important buildings are PANCH MAHAL (a five-storeyed structure), PALACE OF JODHABHAI (with rich interiors), DIWAN-I-KHAS (official court with over hanging galleries and central pillar), JAMA MASJID (Islamic in design but Hindu style also employed).

The other important architectural monuments of Akbar’s time are BULAND DARWAZA, TOMB OF SHAIKH SALIM CHISTI and so on.

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JAHANGIR’S PERIOD:

The architecture of Jahangir’s period is more like a continuation of Akbar’s architecture. The important works are

AKBAR’S TOMB: It was constructed in Sikandra near Agra. The marble trellis work with raised platforms, tiles decorated with golden painting and the garden of char bagh design are the main notable works. The design is similar to Buddhist viharas.

The other architectural works of this period are TOMB OF ITIMADUD-DAUL, TOMB OF ABDUL RAHIM KHAN and so on.

SHAHJAHAN’S PERIOD:

In the Shah Jahan’s period, there was a transition in the architecture from robust style to pretty and elegant style. We can say that the ShahJahan’s period was an age of marble buildings. The style of PIETRADURA was the important characteristic of this period.

RED-FORT: The RED-FORT, which was constructed in Delhi was similar to that of the AGRA FORT. But, the pleasing style of Shahjahan reflects in every architectural work ranging from Pietra dura paintings and domed kiosks to massive walls and marble water canals.

JAMA MASJID: This Masjid which was built in 1656 in Delhi is one of the most impressive mosques in the world with an amalgamation of RED SAND STONE and WHITE MARBLE.

TAJMAHAL: TAJMAHAL, the crown of all palaces, was built by Shah Jahan in Agra in the memory of his late beloved wife MUMTAZ BEGUM. It took nearly 14 years to complete this stupendous architectural piece. The White marble used is of the best quality. The Pietra dura ornamentation, arabesques and scroll works of floral forms are the major architectural works. The ornamental gardens, with long rows of water courses and fountains, add to the beauty.

The Mughal architecture declined after Shahjahan as his successor, AURANGZEB paid no attention to the fine arts.

CONCLUSION:

The architecture of the monuments of the Mughal period is a visual splendour, enhancing our cultural heritage.

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Untouchability and Caste system in India

India is having a hierarchical caste system based society not only among Hindus but also among other castes also. Earlier, the people in the lower hierarchies are not accessible to all the resources and are exploited by upper hierarchies as well, they were victims of untouchability practices.

Besides, there were untouchable castes also who were involved in menial jobs such as manual scavengers, Agricultural labourers, skinners of animal hides and so on. There was the concept of YAJMANI SYSTEM, that is little share of produce was given to the non-touchable people.

With time, Change came in the social behaviour of untouchable people due to factors like commercialisation of Agriculture, Emergence of contractual relations and increased employment in factories, Mandis, Army and so on.

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MOVEMENTS OF PRE-INDEPENDENCE TIME:

In pre-Independence times, leaders like JYOTI RAO BAPULE started SATYA SHODAK SAMAJ and also written a book called GULAMGIRI creating awareness in the minds of untouchable people. There were also movements to make the lower caste people to enter the temples such as GURUVAYUR SATYAGRAHA.

Gandhiji also played his part in the anti-caste movements by integrating the issue of untouchability into the national movement. Concepts like ADI HINDU and NAMSHUDRAS began to evolve.

BABU JAGJEEVAN RAM, the prominent harijan leader started KHETH MAJDOOR SABHA and DEPRESSED CLASS LEAGUE to alleviate the problems of depressed classes. DR. B R AMBEDKAR, popular leader of depressed classes founded INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY in 1936 and ALL INDIA SCHEDULED CASTEFEDERATION in 1942. He also wrote a book called ANNIHILIATION OF CASTES against the caste system. Ambedkar tried to empower the depressed classes by providing them legal rights which we can found in the constitution.

UNTOUCHABILITY MOVEMENTS AFTER INDEPENDENCE:

• In 1956, REPUBLICAN PARTY was formed to fight for the rights of DALITS (victims of untouchability) under the leadership of Y.V.CHAVAN .
• In early 1970’s a new trend called DALIT PANTHERS was emerged in urban areas showing waves of radical politics with student and youth support base
• In 1978, there was an agitation to rename MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY as AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY which resulted in anti-dalit riots.
• In 1990, PRAKASH AMBEDKAR tried to combine all the dalit organisations for contesting Maharashtra assembly elections but was not successful.
• In 1980’s, in North India BAHUJAN SAMAJWADI PARTY (BSP) was emerged under KASHIRAM with basic aim and strategy based on electoral power that is to empower the depressed classes in political manner.
• Non-Dalit parties and groups like AMBEDKAR SANGHAMS and agricultural unions also played important role in fighting about the issues of Dalits.
• Conversion of Dalits and reservation facilities are the obvious improvements in the status of depressed classes.
• Break down of YAJMANI system proved to be a major break-through.

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Still, it is a realty of our caste system that the upper caste people are not accepting lower caste people practising their traditions and performing their rituals. This is what Ambedkar opposed in his book ANNIHILIATION OF CASTES and he wanted a democratic social order based on liberty, equality and fraternity.

CONCLUSION:

Hence, there is a need of critical examination in the context of present day caste system and its religious variations along with untouchability.

Ajanta cave is a name collectively given to a group of about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments. The caves are situated in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. The Ajanta caves are given the status of UNESCO world heritage site since 1983 and are also protected under the care of Archaeological Survey of India. The Ajanta caves consist majorly of Buddhist religious art depicting Jataka tales and figures of Buddha. They include both paintings and sculpture which makes it a delightful tourist attraction to visit. The Ajanta caves are carved out from the side of a solid rock which is on the southern side of a U-shaped gorge made on the small river called Waghur. The caves form a horse-shoe shape. The degree of skill, originality, and creativity with which they are built is commendable.

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The caves date back to about 2^nd century BCE to 650 CE and were built into two phases that are  Satavahana phase and Vakataka phase. The first phase is also called Hinayana phase when buddha was followed symbolically and therefore the first phase lacks sculptures and stupas are found instead. The second phase is also called Mahayana phase when buddha was depicted as a human and in this phase, the images of buddha as sculpture or paintings are found in the Ajanta caves.

The caves are numbered from 1 to 30 but not in a chronological order. The Ajanta caves are numbered on the basis of their location, beginning with cave 1 on the northern side. Out of the 30 caves, 5 are chaityagrihas and the rest of them are viharas. Chaityagrihas are the places where monks used to worship and they used to reside inside the viharas. Cave 1 is the most famous cave when buddha is shown seated during the most remarkable incident of his life called ‘Dharmachakrapravartana’. The ceilings are adorned with geometric designs and motifs. A ceiling painting that depicts a running elephant surrounded by flowers was chosen as the official logo of Indian tourism department.

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Ajanta caves are famous for its mural paintings which fall into two broad phases. The paintings at Ajanta are known to be the fountainhead of all the classic paintings of Asia. The earliest are found in the caves number 9 and 10 which are datable to second century B.C.  The second phase started around 5^th-6^th centuries A.D. and these exemplary paintings found in cave number 1,2,16 and 17 belong to vakataka period.  The main theme of the paintings is a depiction of the life stories of Buddha. The paintings are on a dry fresco that is they are painted on a dry plastered surface rather than on the wet plaster which is the conventional form of painting murals and that is why it makes them different from other mural paintings.

The paintings at Ajanta inspired many Indian painters to observe the ancient techniques and blending them with the modern style which helped them in developing their own distinct style. Nandlal Bose and Abanindranath Tagore are among the prominent ones.

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