Western View Point

What has been the impact of British rule over India? It must be clearly stated that sharp differences have always existed, and continue to persist, among the Indian nationalists and the Western Scholars in their evaluation of the impact of British colonial rule over the economy, society and polity of India.
According to many western writers, the British rule provided political unity and stability of governance to India. It has been maintained by the Western scholars that the British rescued India from chaos and provided political stability. As Morris D. Morris, an American Scholar observes:

“Despite a Hindu tradition of imperial expansion, at no time in Indian history over any large region did a stable political unit survive for more than a century or a century-and-a half. There was nothing that compares with the imperial chronologies of Rome, Egypt, or China. A crucial consequence is that no tradition of continuous administrative institutions and no persistent bureaucracy ever developed”.

Indian political unity was a myth, an abstract concept which was concretized into a reality by the British rulers. In the absence of political unity, the eighteenth century India had very low levels of “commerce and capital accumulation” and its implication was that the British rule in India had to deal with a very low level of an economy. This argument of the western writers challenges the nationalist argument that India was economically very attractive and profitable for the British.

Read Also: Colonial Exploitation of Indian Economy

Second, the western writers have suggested that the history of India revealed a very low level of agricultural productivity because it was based on a ‘non-animal powered agriculture’. According to many western historians, the absence of any worthwhile technology kept a large portion of India as a ‘virgin land as late as 1800’. Tobacco, potato and peanut cultivation was introduced by the British in India.

Third, according to them, India could not claim any great achievements in manufacturing because it lacked technology. Although India had some excellent craftsmen and produced textiles and a few other manufactured goods but they were the result of hard work and not of any developed technology. The evidence for this view-point is gathered from the seventeenth-century records of the English which point out the inelasticity of textile productivity in India. W.H. Moreland and many other scholars have used the evidence of early European travelers to prove that Indian technology was poor. On the basis of such evidence, Morris D. Morris observes that:

“…. The Indian subcontinent was a region in which per capita income was relatively low in the centuries before 1800. Given the lack of political stability, low agricultural and non-agricultural productivity, and insignificant commerce no other conclusion is supportable”.

If the opinions of Morris D. Morris, W.H. Moreland, or European travelers or British factory records are accepted that India was underdeveloped when the British gradually conquered it, then the implication is that the British conquest of India was beneficial for the economy, society and polity of this country. In history whenever two societies interact, the advanced and well-organized society succeeds in establishing its control over the less advanced society and at the same time the less advanced society gains from the technology and organization of the advanced society. This is the basic premise of the western writers who view the British colonial rule as a rule of advanced society over an underdeveloped society. In the process, the underdeveloped society like India achieved benefits from the British rule and they are enumerated by the Western scholars:

• The British provided political unity and stability to India.
• The British developed a system of roads and rail transport which had a positive impact on the economic development of India.
• The British developed irrigation and other public works which facilitated the growth of agriculture, commerce and manufacturing activities in India.

To sum up, the Western writers have made two points regarding the impact of British rule over India. First, on the eve of colonial expansion, the British found a highly underdeveloped India with low productivity in agriculture, very low per capita income and absence of any developed technology or tools for manufacturing. Second, the benevolent policies of the British helped in the establishment of political unity, a system of governance and it laid the foundations of economic development in India.

Must Read: Drain of Wealth British Colonialism and Economic Impact

Indian view point

As against this, the Indian nationalist scholars put forward a different hypothesis. Dadabhai Naoroji, Romesh Chandra Dutt in the 19th century and Rajni Palme Dutt in the 20th century represented the Indian nationalist perspective. The question
they raised was that why did the British East India Company gradually get involved in local wars of conquest? Why did the British Queen in 1858 take up the direct responsibility of ruling over India till 1947? How was it that the East India Company which came to India with a trading capital of £ 68,000, went on to make fortunes? If the Indian economy was really stagnant, how did it sustain the East India Company and its expenditure?
Two important aspects of British colonial rule over India highlighted by the nationalists were the ‘drain theory’ and the theory of ‘de-industrialisation’.

Don’t Miss: 

How East India Company Established British Empire in India? Explained.

The Revolt 1857: the First War of Independence

In previous article Indian Textile Industry – Eighteenth Century we have already discussed about the rise in influence of East India Company over textile industry, their strategies, monopoly, decay of Surat and Hoogly ports while growth of Bombay of Calcutta ports, and life of weavers. By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers faced a new set of problems.

Manchester Comes to India

In 1772, Henry Patillo, a company official, had ventured to say that the demand for Indian textile could never reduce, since no other nation produced goods of the same quality. Yet by the beginning of the nineteenth century, we see the beginning of the long decline of textile exports from India. In 1811-12 piece-goods accounted for 33 percent of India’s exports; by 1850-51, it was no more than 3 percent.

Read Also: Indian Industry: Rules, Policies, and Types

As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups began worrying about imports from other countries. They pressurized the government to impose import duties on cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without facing any competition from outside. At the same time, industrialists persuaded the East India Company to sell British manufacturers in Indian markets as well. Exports of British cotton goods increased dramatically in early nineteenth century. At the end of the eighteenth century, there had been virtually no import of cotton piece-goods into India. But by 1850 cotton piece-goods constituted over 31 per cent of the value of Indian imports: and by the 1870s, this figure was over 50 per cent.

Cotton weavers in India thus faced two problems at the same time:

• Their export market collapsed and
• The local market shrank being glutted with Manchester imports.

Don’t Miss: Biotechnology Impact on Cotton Production

The Commissioner of Patna wrote:

“It appears that twenty years ago, a brisk trade was carried on in the manufacture of cloth at Jahanabad, and Behar, which has in the former place entirely ceased, while in the latter the amount of manufacture is very limited, in consequence of the cheap and durable goods from Manchester with which the Native manufactures are unable to compete.”

Produced by machines at lower costs, the imported cotton goods were so cheap that weavers could not easily compete with them. By the 1850s, reports from most weaving regions of India narrated stories of decline and desolation.

Reporting on the Kostis, a community of weavers, the Census Report of Central Provinces stated:

“The Koshtis, like the weaver of the finer kind of cloth in the other part of India, have fallen upon evil times. They are unable to compete with the showy goods which Manchester sends in such profusion, and they have of late years emigrated in great numbers, chiefly to Berar, whereas day labourers they are able to obtain wages …”

By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of good quality. When the American Civil War broke out the cotton supplies from the US were cut off, Britain turned to India. As raw cotton export from India increased, rice of raw cotton shot up. Weavers in India were starved of supplies and forced to buy raw cotton at exorbitant prices. In this, situation weaving could not pay.

Then, by the end of the nineteenth century, weavers and other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in India began production, flooding the market with machine-goods. How could weaving industry possibly survive?

Also, Read:

India’s exports rise by 6.97 percent in March 2013

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

Technologically Advanced Countries in the World

The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially, the first four of which were of Turkic origin and the last was the Afghan Lodi. The Lodi dynasty was replaced by the Mughal dynasty. The five dynasties were the Mamluk dynasty(1206–90); the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320); the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414); the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51); and the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi and his dynasty conquered large areas of northern India. Afterwards, the Khilji dynasty was also able to conquer most of the central India, but both failed to unite the Indian subcontinent.

Read Also: Important Muslim Emperors of India

Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate are:

Mamluk Dynasty

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

During the Mamluk dynasty, Qutub’ ud-Din Aibak initiated the construction of Qutub Minar and Quwwatu’l-Islam (literally, Might of Islam) mosque

First Battle of Panipat

The first battle of Panipat was actually the event that marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the beginning of the Mughal dynasty in India. The 1st battle of Panipat was fought between the last ruler of Lodhi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi and the ruler of Kabul, Babur.

Khilji Dynasty

After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter.

Lodi Dynasty

The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghazali tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty.

Sayyid Dynasty

After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed.

Must Read: Second Battle of Panipat

Tughlaq Dynasty

The Tughlaqs were basically of Turkish origin and the family was essentially Muslim. Around the year 1321, Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. The Tughlaq dynasty was able to withhold its rule due to their strong allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia.

Delhi Sultanate marked an era of temple destruction and desecration. Mohammad Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed Buddhist and Hindu libraries and their manuscripts at Nalanda and  Odantapuri Universities at the beginning of Delhi Sultanate. The first historical record of a campaign of temples destruction and defacement of faces or heads of Hindu idols are from 1193 through early 13th century in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh under the command of Ghuri.

In 1526 the Delhi Sultanate fell and was replaced by the Mughal Empire.

Don’t Miss:

Economic Condition During the Delhi Sultanate

Important Muslim Emperors of India

The Megalithic cultures, dated between 1200BC-300BC, of early history of South India was followed by the Sangam Age. Megalithic people followed agro-pastoral activities for their livelihood.

The Sangam Age points to that period in the early history of South India when large numbers of poems in Tamil were written by many authors. The term ‘Sangam’, here, indicates to an assembly or “meeting together” of Tamil poets. According to traditional history, three assemblies were convened one after another. All these three Sangams took place under the patronage of th Pandaya Kings of Madurai, at different places.

The Sangam Literature, belonging to the period from 300BC to 300 AD, records early history of South India. In fact the most remarkable feature of the Sangam literature is its vivid description of the contemporary society and culture of Tamilaham or Tamil region and its harmonious and peaceful interaction with the Aryan (northern) culture. Poems representing the Sangam Literature were authored on two broader themes of love and war. Later, it was put together in eight collections named Ettutogai.

Must Read: The Bhakti Movement of the Medieval Age

Political condition of the Sangam Age

Tamilaham, the region between the hills of Tirupati and the tip of Kanyakumari, was divided amongst large number of chieftains and the chieftainship was hereditary. The most famous and significant chieftains who established their domination during the Sangam Age were the Cholas who had their capital of Uraiyarpur; the Cheras who had their capital at Vanji (near karur); and Pandyas with their capital at Madurai. As the Cholas, Pandyas and Chiras had many subordinate chiefs, the main sources of their revenue were tribute along with plunder from these subordinate chiefs.

In the Sangam Age the entire Tamilaham was separated into five tinias (eco-zones). These zones were based on their economic resources as it is obvious from the name. They were: Karinji (hilly region); Palai (arid zone); mullai (pastoral tracts); marudam (wet lands); and neital (seacoast).

These zones were scattered all around the region and not clearly demarcated. People belonging to different tinias had their own methods of subsistence that were based on their different geographical context and ecological specialties. For instance, in kurunji, people were dependent on hunting and gathering for their subsistence; in Palai people were dependent on raiding and plundering because they could not produce anything; in mullai people were dependent on the practice of animal husbandry; in marudam it was plaugh agriculture; and in neital the main occupations of people were fishing and salt making.

Also Read: The Rig Veda Age : Religion and Philosophy

Society in the Sangam Age

In the Sangam period, although the concept of varna was known, social classes were not marked by higher or lower ranking as in north India. For instance, Brahmans in the society performed Vedic ceremonies and sacrifices and also discharge their duty as advisers of the chief but they were not provided any special privileges. People were known on the basis of their occupations. The rich lived in well decorated houses made of bricks and wore costly clothes while the poor lived in mud huts and had insufficient clothes to wear.

The memorial stones called nadukal or virukkal, raised in honour of those who died fighting, show the special position the war heroes had in the society; they were, in fact, worshipped as godlings.

That women belonging to the Sangam Age were educated, is clearly obvious from the fact that the Sangam literature consist of many poems written by women poets. In that period women were also engaged in economic activities such as cattle rearing, plantation, basket-making, spinning, etc. However, in Tamil society Sati was also prevalent and it was called tippayadal. But it appears that this custom of Sati was not obligatory as there are plenty of references of widows in the society. However, the status of women in general was more or less miserable as they were forbidden to decorate themselves of participate in any form of amusement.

Don’t Miss: Cultural Achievements of Akbar

The Sangam Economy

Agriculture, craft and Trade were the economic activities in which the people of the Sangam Age were engaged. The important crop of the period was Paddy because it was not only the principal part of people’s diet but also a medium of barter exchange for inland trade.

As there are no perennial rivers in the Tamil region, the chiefs, generally, wherever it was possible for them, promoted agricultural activities by constructing dams and tanks. The Chola King Karikala of the Sangam Age constructed a dam on the river Kaveri. This dam is considered to be the earliest dam in the country. Spinning and weaving textiles cotton as well as silk was the most important among the crafts. Manufacturing salt was one of the significant economic activities.

The most significant characteristics of the Sangam economy was flourishing trade with the Roman World. A large number of Roman coins recovered in the South India are obvious examples of this fact. The main reason behind this flourishing trade was the discovery of monsoons and use of direct sea route between Indian Coasts and the Western World. This flourishing trade further resulted in the rise of important towns and crafts centres in Tamil region.

It has been described in the history, that Roman ships laden with gold used to come here and they took back with themselves large amounts of pepper.

Vinji, present day karur on Tamil Nadu, was the capital of the Cheras and also was an important centre of trade and craft. In the Sangam peoms, Madurai, the capital of the Pandayas, is described as a large city surrounded by a wall. It was a famous centre of fine textile and ivory working Korkai was an important Pandya port in the Tirunnelveli district of Tamil Nadu. This port was famous for its pearls.

The capital of the Cholas, Uraiyur (Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu), was a grand city with magnificent building. Puhar or Kaveripattinam was the principal Chola port. The poems of the Sangam literature refer to the busy markets guarded by soldiers.

Must Read: Zoroastrianism-Introduction to Persian Religion

Region in the Sangam Age

The Sangam period, in the context of religion, was a symbol of a peaceful and close interaction between North Indian and South Indian traditions. The Brahmanas performing religious ceremonies popularized the worship of Indra, Vishnu, Siva etc. in South India. The presence of Buddhists and Jainism in the Tamil Nadu are also mentioned. The local people, particularly belonging to Kurinji, worshipped a deity known as Murugan, which in northern India was identified with Kartikeya, a war god.

The credit of recording the history of the Sangam Age goes to the Sangam Literature that through its poems on love and emotion (aham) and warfare and social behavior (puram) on the whole display a picture of political conflict, social inequality and economic prosperity of early Tamil region between 300 BC and 300AD.

Also Read: Sikhism – An Introduction to Sikh Religion