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15 Must Know Facts about Buddha and Buddhism

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Syskool
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Buddha and Buddhism

Founder of Buddhism:

Gautam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, he was born in 563 BC as Prince Siddhartha on the Vaisakha Poornima day at Lumbini (near Kapilvastu) in Nepal.

Prince Siddhartha:

His father Suddhodana was a ruler of Saka dynasty, and his mother Mahamaya was of Kosala dynasty.

Stepmother Gautami:

His mother died only after 7 days of his birth. He was brought up by his stepmother Gautami.

Marriage and Son:

He got married at the age of 16 to Yashodhara. He had a son named Rahula.

Mahabhinishkramana:

At the age of 29 Gautam Buddha left the palace in search of truth, the event was known as ‘Mahabhinishkramana’.

Nirvana:

He wandered for 6 years in the search of truth and finally attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at Gaya in Magadh (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

Horse n Charioteer:

Buddha’s favorite horse was Kanthaka and charioteer was Channa.

Teachers of Buddha:

For the first time, Buddha meditated with Alara Kalama, his next teacher was Udraka Ramputra.

Ascetics:

Buddha joined five ascetics namely Kondna, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mhanama, and Asagi.

First Sermon (Buddhism)

Mahatma Buddha delivered the first sermon at Sarnath, his first sermon is called “Dharmachakrapravartan” or “Turning the Wheel of Law”.

Mahaparinirvana

Mahatma Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

Tripitakas (Buddhism)

Buddhist Literature is mainly written in Pali Language. Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, i.e. ‘Threefold Basket’.

Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma

Vinaya Pitaka is the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. Sutta Pitaka is largest, and it contains a collection of Buddha’s sermons. Abhidhamma Pitaka explains the philosophical principles of the Buddhism.

Mahavansh and Deepvansh

Mahavansh and Deepvansh are other Buddhist texts; these provide information about then Sri Lanka.

Dhamma and Sangha

Buddha’s teaching are called Dhamma and the Order of Buddhist monk and nuns is known as Sangha.

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Delhi Sultanate

By
Syskool
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4
delhi sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived dynasties and one sultan, Delhi based kingdoms or sultanates, mostly of Turkic origin in medieval India. The sultanates ruled from Delhi between 1206 and 1526, when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty. The five dynasties were the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90); the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320); the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414); the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51); and the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526).

The Slave Dynasty

Slave Dynasty

Time period
1. Qutub-ud-din Aibak
1206-1210 AD
2. Iltutmish
1210-1236 AD
3. Raziya Sultan
1236-1239 AD
4. Bahram Shah
1240-1242 AD
5. Ala-ud-din Masud
1242-1246 AD
6. Nasiruddin Mahmud
1246-1266 AD
7. Balban
1266-1285 AD
8. Kaikubad
1286-1290 AD

Qutub-ud-din Aibek

Qutub-ud-din Aibek laid the foundation of a new dynasty called the slave dynasty in 1206 AD. He established himself as the sultan of Delhi at Lahore. He strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with his rivals. He gave his daughter to Iltutmish the foremost of his slaves.

Iltutmish

After Qutub-ud-din Aibek his son, Aram Shah succeeded the throne. He was not able to display the skill of conquests and administration shone by his forerunners. Iltutmish over threw his rule with the support of the nobles. A battle followed in which Aram Shah was defeated and killed. In 1211 AD Iltutmish came to the throne. He was also known as Shamsuddin. He spent his days in retrieving the lost territories of Qutub-ud-din Aibek and also added Malwa and Sind. During the reign of Iltutmish, he fought against the rival slave chiefs Yildiz and Qabacha.
At the battlefield of Tarain Yildiz was defeated. Iltutmish also faced danger from the Mongols led by Chingiz Khan. In his diplomatic decision, he avoided the conflict with the mighty Mongol by preventing Jalal-ud-din the ruler of Khawarism from coming to India. Another major threat to the power of Iltutmish was the independent Rajput rulers who in spite of their rivalry could pose a serious danger to the Sultanat. In 1226 AD he attacked Ranthambor and Mansor. He also occupied Ajmer, Jalor, Nagor.
In 1229 Gwalior was occupied and the fort of Kalinjar was plundered. Kannauj, Benaras, and Badaun were under his dominion. In the year 1229AD the Caliph of Baghdad recognized him as Sultan. He brought order in Rohilkhand. He suppressed the revolt of Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal. Iltutmish was the greatest ruler of 13th century India and a wise statesman. He was generous to talented people who willingly became the pillars of the central administration.

Raziya

Raziya came to the throne by overthrowing her brother Rukn-ud-din. After elevating many Tajiks to high positions Raziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqut an Ethiopian slave as superintendent of the royal horses which aroused resentment in a majority of the already disgruntled Turkish nobles. Moreover, sultana began to appear unveiled in public. Though the people of Delhi supported her, hostility mounted among the iqtadars. In 1239-40 she crushed some of the rebellious iqtadars but one of them Altunia killed Yakut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meanwhile, the powerful Turkish nobles put Iltutmish’s third son Bahram on the throne. Raziya married Altunia and their combined efforts to capture Delhi failed. They were killed during an attack on their convoy.
The fall of Raziya made the clique of Turkish nobles dominant in the court and they started a scramble for supremacy. Raziya’s successor Bahram Shah was a weak and incompetent ruler and was over thrown by the nobles after a brief reign of two years. He was succeeded by Alauddin Masud Shah who also met the same fate of Bahram Shah. In 1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud the grandson of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He owed his throne to the Turkish aristocracy and the latter was bound to have tremendous influence in the administration. He places all his powers in the hands of his prime minister Balban. Balban married off his daughter to Sultan and was made Naiib-i-Mamlakat with the title of Ulugh Khan. Balban became the defacto ruler of the Sultanate. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died.

Balban

Balban had full control over sovereignty sat on the throne of Delhi in 1266 and he adopted the name of Ghiyasuddin Balban. With his accession, the line of rulers of the family of Iltutmish ended. The most serious problem, which he faced soon after his succession, was the restoration of law and order in Delhi and other parts of his kingdom. Balban in his attempt to curtail the power of the nobility increased the power and prestige of the Sultan. For this purpose, he introduced Persian ceremonies and etiquettes in his court and allowed no manner of levity there. He was a thorough aristocrat and he never gave the office to anyone except to well-born men. He impressed upon the people that kingship was the vice-regency of God on earth and in its dignity it was next only to prophethood. The king was the shadow of God and was the repository of divine guidance and radiance. Having consolidated his authority Balban addressed himself to the task of maintaining peace and order with his characteristic vigour. He realized that a strong army was essentially necessary to cope with the internal troubles and external dangers. Hence, he reorganized his army and increased his efficiency. Additional officers were appointed with higher emoluments.
Balaban did not try to extend his empire although he had a powerful army. He instead concentrated on consolidating the territory already in possession. He suppressed the revolts in the Doab and Oudh and tracked down recalcitrant elements in the region of Rohilkhand. Mughals invaded again in 1279 and 1285 but was defeated and driven away. In 1286 the Mongols reappeared and this time, Prince Muhammad was killed. Balban could never recover from the tragedy and died in 1286.

Khalji Dynasty

Rulers of the Khalji Dynasty

Time period
1. Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji
1290-1296 AD
2. Alauddin Khalji
1296-1316 AD
3. Qutubuddin Mubarak
1316-1320 AD

Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji 

Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji was the founder of the Khilji dynasty. He came to power after the overthrow of slave dynasty. Their ascendancy is known as Khilji imperialism because, with the accession of Jalaluddin on the throne of Delhi, the supremacy of the Turks ended in India. He expanded the boundaries of his empire besides his achievements include suppression of the revolt of Malik Chhaju with the governor of Oudh. He suppressed the Thuggees a band of robbers and send them off peacefully to Bengal. He adopted the conciliatory policy towards the Mongols. He allowed some of the Mongols to settle in India.

It was during the conquest of Bhilsa that Alauddin the nephew of Jalaluddin started realising the dream of being sultan. In 1292 AD Alauddin led an expedition to Devagiri hearing of its wealth. Devagiri was forced to pay a huge war indemnity. This helped Alauddin in buying the nobles and pleasing the soldiers who were dissatisfied by the rule of Jalaluddin. Alauddin than hatched a conspiracy and got Sultan Jalaluddin killed and proclaimed himself as the sultan.

Alauddin Khilji

In 1296 Alauddin became the sultan after Malika Jan the widow of Jalaluddin and her younger son Qadir Khan left Delhi. He also exterminated the old Balboni and Jalali nobles. The reign of Alauddin Khilji marks the zenith of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. In 1297 he set off for conquering Gujarat. He sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Gujarat. On the way Ulugh Khan conquered Jaisalmer. During the plunder of the rich port of Cambay Alauddin’s commander Nusrat Khan acquired a Hindu turned Muslim slave Kafur who later on rose to become a great military general and the Malik Naib of Alauddin.
After the conquest of Gujarat, Alauddin sent an expedition under Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to Ranthambhore. However the Rajputs defeated them and Nusrat Khan died. Alauddin went to Ranthambhor and annexed it in 1301. The next expedition was sent to Mewar and after the siege of 8 months, he captured Chittor in 1303. The administration of Chittor was put in the hands of Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Chittor was renamed as Khizrabad after the name of Khizr Khan. In 1305 Alauddin sent Ain-ul-Mulk Multani for the conquest of Malwa which was placed under the governorship of the latter. By the end of 1305, the whole of Northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and he directed his attention to the conquest of Deccan.
Between 1307 and 1312 he began the southward expansion of his empire. He invaded Devagiri in 1306-07 AD. The immediate cause for this was an unduly long delay in sending the annual tribute. In 1309 the Kakatiya kingdom was attacked and its ruler Pratap Rudra Deva accepted the suzerainty of Delhi and surrendered vast treasures. The next expedition was against Vir Ballala III the Hoysala ruler in 1311. His capital Dwarsamudra was captured. The whole of Deccan was forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Alauddin. His motives were to secure the immense wealth and to force the southern states to accept the suzerainty of the Sultanate. He had to face more than a dozen invasions. These invasions started from the end of 1296 and continued upto 1308.The Mongols threatened not only Punjab,Multan and Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This grave crisis compelled him to take strong measures for the protection of the northwest frontier. The 20 years of his rule came to an end with his death on 2nd January 1316 AD.

Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji

A young son of the Sultan was placed on the throne and Malik Kafur acted as the regent. Malik Kafur killed other members of the Allauddin’s family but he was murdered and Mubarak Khan the third son became the regent. He imprisoned Sahibuddin and ascended the throne as Qutub uddin Mubarak in the year 1316. He tried to win the good will of the people. He liberalized Alauddin’s rigorous administrative policies and repealed economic regulations. All prisoners were released and harsh regulations were cancelled. The lands which were confiscated were given back to their legitimate owners. Taxes were lowered. He was under the influence of youth called Hassan who later was called Khusru Khan who conspired to kill him. Thus, Khalji dynasty came to an end. Khusro tried to strike a reign of terror to control the nobles. This was resented by the nobles particularly Ghazi Malik who captured and beheaded the sultan. He ascended the throne under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah.

Tughlaq Dynasty

Rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty

Time period
1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah
1320-1325 AD
2. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq
1325-1351 AD
3. Firuz Tughlaq
1351-1388 AD
4. Later Tughlaq
1388-1414 AD
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Tughlaq Dynasty. The word Tughlaq was not the name of any tribe or clan but was the personal name of Ghiyasuddin. He had to face enormous problems as a Sultan. There were riots in various parts of the empire and the royal treasury was empty. He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely restricted under Alauddin. He liberalized administration in certain respects. He gave up the practice of physical torture in case of economic offences and recovery of debts.
He also discarded Alauddin’s system of measurement of land for the assessment of land revenue. He attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve the economic condition of the cultivators. He took a keen interest in the construction of canal for irrigation and formulated famine policy to provide relief to peasants in the time of drought. The state demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5th and 1/3rd of the produce. He further instructed that the land revenue should not be enhanced more than 1/11th of the estimated produce.
He continued the system of Dagh and Chehra instituted by Alauddin. He built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and gave a new touch to the architecture of the Sultanate period. In 1321 he dispatched the crown prince Jauna Khan to re-establish Sultan’s authority in the south. He annexed Warangal. Madurai and Bengal.

Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

Jauna Khan ascended the throne in 1325 AD with the title of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq. He ruled up to 1351. He was a profound scholar of Persian, a penetrating critic, a litterateur of repute. He was a great scholar of Persian and Arabic. He faced many revolts and rebellions. The first of these revolts included his attempt to consolidate his empire by curbing the rebellions of 1327 by his cousin Bahauddin Garsharp in the Deccan and other of Kishulu Khan the governor of Multan and Sind in 1328.
One of the much-condemned experiments of the Sultan was the transfer of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (1327). The transfer was attempted primarily due to two reasons -for its central location and secondly its close proximity to the south which was a newly conquered region. The transfer of capital involved the shifting of the army, officials, servants, tradesmen, court and shift of population. There was a widespread resentment against the Sultan who decided to retransfer the capital to Delhi. The order of going back to the old capital caused much distress to the people. Another of his novel and daring experiments was the introduction of the token currency of bronze coins in place of silver tanka in 1329-30.
The value of the token coins was deemed to be equal to a silver coin. The main reason for this measure was the scarcity of silver. This measure proved useful in the beginning but later on it caused serious problems. People soon began to manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers. There was a surfeit of coins in circulation. This naturally led to its depreciation and most people began to prefer copper tankas for payments and silver or gold issues for receipts. The Sultan was compelled to withdraw the token currency. He offered to exchange all the token coins for the silver coins resulting in huge losses to the treasury. He planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq.
He raised an army of 3,70,000 soldiers and gave it a whole year’s salary in advance. But the army did not leave for the expedition and was disbanded. The scheme was abandoned when the Sultan learnt that the conditions in Iraq had improved and was not conducive to an expedition. Towards the end of his reign, the sultan increased the land revenue in the doab. He decided to enhance the land tax in the doab because of the richness of its soil. Doab was facing total famine which was followed by the plague. The Sultan raised the tax from 5 to 10%. Therefore, the peasants instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq died in 1351. The whole of south India became independent during his lifetime and three major independent states- the empire of Vijayanagar, the Brahmani kingdom and the Sultanate of Madura were founded in the territories of the sultanate of the south.
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First Battle of Panipat

By
Syskool
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3

The first Battle of Panipat gave a death blow to the Lodhi empire and marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate’s rule in India. It led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. Mongol prince Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, known as Babur, had promised to help Daulat Khan Lodhi, Governor of Lahore, to fight the Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodhi in 1523 and made many raids into Punjab. Babur, after occupying the whole of Panjab by 1525 AD, marched towards Delhi. In November 1525 he set out to meet the Sultan of Delhi. Passage of Indus took place on 15th December. Babur had about 12,000 soldiers. Crossing Sutluj at Roper and reached Ambala without meeting any resistance. On April 1st Babur reached Panipat. It was barren wasteland dry and naked with few thorny bushes. Rumors came that Sultan was coming with an army of 100,000 and 1000 war elephants. The Afghan Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi advanced from Delhi to meet the invader. Babur had a strong artillery which was effectively pressed into service.

Read Also: Second Battle of Panipat

The battle started at six in the morning. Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi advanced rapidly . At about 400 yards Babur’s Cannons opened fire, noise and smoke from the artillery terrified the Afghans and the attack lost momentum. Seizing the movement Babur sent out his flanking columns to envelop the Sultan’s army. Here the Afghans met for the first time the real weapon of Mongols ‘Turko-Mongol Bow’. Its superiority lay in the fact that it was the weapon of the nobles, of the finest warriors. Such a bow in the hands of a Mongol warrior would shoot three times as rapidly as musket and could kill at 200 yards.

Attacked from 3 sides the Afghans jammed into each other. Elephants hearing the noise of cannon at close range ran wildly out of control. Ibrahim Lodhi and about 6000 of his troops were involved in actual fighting. Most of his army stretching behind up to a mile never saw action. The battle ended in about 3 hours with the death of Ibrahim Lodhi who was at the forefront.

And in the place where fighting had been the fiercest, among the heap of Mongols slain of his sword, lay the vain but courageous Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi. His head was cut off and taken to Babur. Ibrahim Lodhi’s tomb is still present in Panipat. When afghans fled they left 20,000 dead and wounded. Losses to Babur’s army were heavy 4000 of his troops were killed or wounded. Had Sultan Ibrahim survived another hour of fighting he would have won, as Babur had no reserves and his troops were rapidly tiring in Indian mid-day sun. Babur observes in his autobiography, “The mighty army of Delhi was laid in the dust in the course of half a day.” In the words of Rushbrook Williams, “If there was one single material factor, which more than any other conduced to his ultimate triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery.” The elephants trampled their own soldiers after being frightened away by the explosion of gunpowder.

Two weeks later the victorious Babur entered Agra where he was presented with the famous diamond ‘Koh-i-noor’. Babur celebrated his victory in a lavish manner and occupied Delhi and Agra.

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Second Battle of Panipat

By
Syskool
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0
Second Battle of Panipat

Second Battle of Panipat: On 24th January 1556 AD Mughal ruler Humayun slipped while climbing down the steps of his library and fell to his death. His son Akbar was only thirteen years old when he ascended the throne. At the time of Akbar’s accession to the throne, the Mughal rule was confined to Kabul, Kandahar, and parts of Punjab and Delhi. Akbar was then campaigning in Punjab with his chief minister Bairam Khan. On February 14, 1556, in a garden at Kalanaur, Akbar was enthroned as emperor. Hemu (Hemchandra) was a military chief of the Afghan King Muhammad Adil Shah who had established himself at Chunar and was seeking to expel the Mughals from India. Taking advantage of Humayun’s death, Hemu marched to Agra and Delhi in October and occupied it without difficulty, and became the ruler under the title ‘Raja Vikramaditya’.

Read Also: First Battle of Panipat

To counter this, Bairam Khan (Akbar’s guardian) marched towards Delhi. On November 5 both the armies met at Panipat. Hemu with a large army including 1,500 war elephants had initial success. There was a pitched second  battle of Panipat and Hemu was on a winning spree when a stray arrow struck him in the eye. He fell unconscious. As in many other battles, the loss of the leader caused panic among the troops and turned the tide of the battle. The Mughals won the battle. Shah Quli Khan captured the Hawai elephant with its prize occupant and took it directly to Akbar. Hemu was brought unconscious before Bairam and Akbar. Bairam pleaded Akbar to perform the holy duty of slaying the infidel and earn the Islamic holy title of ‘Ghazi’. Among much self-congratulation Akbar then severed the head of unconscious Hemi with his saber.
Some historians claim that Akbar did not kill Hemu himself, but just touched the infidel’s head with his sword and his associates finished the gory ‘holy’ work. After the battle, Hemu’s head was sent to Kabul as a sign of victory to the ladies of Humayun’s harem, and Hemu’s torso was sent to Delhi for exposure on a gibbet. Iskandar Khan chased the Hemu’s fleeing army and captured 1500 elephants and a large contingent. Hemu’s wife escaped from Delhi with the treasure and Pir Mohammad Khan’s troops chased her caravan without success. There was a great slaughter of those who were captured and in keeping with the custom of his ancestors, Akbar had a victory pillar built with their heads. This battle, known as Second Battle of Panipat was an epoch-making event in the history of India as it resulted in re-establishment of the Mughal empire in India.
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Modern History of India

By
Syskool
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3
Modern History of India includes Indian National Congress, Partition of Bengal, Swadeshi Movement, Rowlatt Act have into the list of Modern History of India. Following list is giving an insight of Modern History of India.

Modern History of India

The Indian National Congress:
• Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.
• The first session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.
• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).
Read Also: Civil Disobedience Movement
Partition of Bengal:
• By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
• A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. The national movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Swadeshi Movement (1905):
• Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale.
• Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.
Formation of Muslim League (1906):
• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.
Demand for Swaraj:
• In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people.
Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):
• The INC split into two groups – The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.
Indian Councils Act or Minto-Morley Reforms (1909):
• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.
• Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.
Ghadar Party (1913):
• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das, and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
• HQ was in San Francisco.
Home Rule Movement (1916):
• Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept 1916).
• Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire.
• Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of the Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
Lucknow Pact (1916):
• Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims.
• Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country).
August Declaration (1917):
• After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This came to be called the August Declaration.
Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):
• This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
• Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
• People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.
• General O’ Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
• As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.
• Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this.
• Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
• On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’Dyer when the later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.
Khilafat Movement (1920):
• Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War.
• Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.
Non-cooperation Movement (1920):
• It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.
• Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920.
Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):
• A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.
• This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non-Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.
Simon Commission (1927):
• Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.
• Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.
• The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.
Lahore Session (1929):
• On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
• On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.
Revolutionary Activities:
• The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar, and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.
• In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).
• In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of Kingsford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt, and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
• In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Wyllie, the political advisor of “India Office” in London.
• In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).
• In Oct 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They set up Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).
• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.
• Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.
• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev was hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jail (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
• In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
• Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armory. He was hanged in 1933.
• In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Dandi March (1930):
• Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
• Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930, for the small village Dandi to break the salt law.
• He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930.
• He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.
First Round Table conference (1930):
• It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.
• Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931):
• Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
• The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.
• In this, the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.
• The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.
Second Round Table Conference (1931):
• Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.
• However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time, separate electorates were demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.
The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):
• Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.
• Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, women and even Backward classes.
• Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.
Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):
• After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji, the mass meeting took place almost everywhere.
• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.
• Eventually, Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).
• In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased.
Third Round Table Conference (1932):
• Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
Demand For Pakistan:
• In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation.
• Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923.
• Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
• Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.
The Cripps Mission – 1942:
• In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S-E Asia.
• The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.
• He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war.
• Rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely upon future promises.
• Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.
Also. Read: Quit India Movement
The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:
• Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
• The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’.
• On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested.
• The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country.
• The movement was however crushed.
The Indian National Army:
• Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh.
• S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941 and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA in Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.
• Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick-Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V.Alexander) will visit India.
• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.
• On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested.
• Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.
Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):
• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.Jinnah’s Direct
Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):
• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
• Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):
• The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946, and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
• On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:
• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
• Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
• The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):
• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and the big Princely States in India.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used an iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.
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