As we entered the twenty-first century, there are over one billion Muslims living in all parts of the world. They are citizens of different nations, speak different languages, and dress differently. The process by which they became Muslims were varied, and so were the circumstances in which they went their separate ways. Yet, the Islamic history community has its roots in a more unified past which unfolded roughly 1400 years ago in an Arabian peninsula.

Its expansion was from Egypt to Afghanistan, also it was the core area of Islamic civilization from 600 to 1200. In these centuries of Islamic history, society exhibited multiple political and cultural patterns. The term Islamic is used here not only in its pure religious sense but also in the overall society and culture historically associated with Islam. In this society, not everything that was happening originated directly from religion, but it took place in a society where Muslims and their faith were recognized as socially dominant. Non-Muslims always formed an integral, it subordinate, part of this society as did Jews in Christendom.

Our understanding of the central Islamic history lands between 600 to 1200 is based on chronicles or tawarikh (which narrate events in order of time) and semi-historical works such as biographies (sira), records of the saying and doing of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir). The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (Akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper. The authenticity of each report (Khabar) was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission (isnad) and established the reliability of the narrator. Although the method was not foolproof, medieval Muslim writers were more careful in selecting their informants than were their contemporaries in other parts of the world.

On controversial issues, they reproduced different versions of the same event, as they found in their sources, leaving the task of judgment to their readers. Their description of events closer to their own times is more systematic and analytic and less of a collection of Akhbar. Most of the chronicles and semi-historical works are in Arabic, the best being the Tarikh of Tabari (d. 923) which has been translated into English in 38 volumes.

Persian chronicles are few but they are quite detailed in their treatment of Iran and Central Asia. Christian chronicles, written in Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic; Aramaic is a language related to Hebrew and Arabic. It has been used in Ashokan inscriptions), are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam.  Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems.

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Documentary evidence (fragmentary piece of writing such as official orders or private correspondence) is the most valuable for writing histories because it does not consciously refer to events and persons. It comes almost entirely from Greek and Arabic papyri (good for administrative history) and the Geniza records. Some evidence has emerged from archaeological (excavations were done at desert palaces), numismatic ( the study of coins) and epigraphic (the study of inscriptions) sources which are of great value for economic history, art history, and for establishing names and dates.

Proper histories of Islam began to be written in the nineteenth century by university professors in Germany and the Netherlands. Colonial interests in the Middle East and North Africa encouraged French and British researchers to study Islam as well. Christian priests too paid close attention to the history of Islam and produced some good works, although their interest was mainly to compare Islam with Christianity. These scholars, called Orientalists, are known for their knowledge of Arabic and Persian and critical analysis of original texts.

Ignaz Goldziher was a Hungarian Jew who studied at the Islamic college (al-Azhar) in Cairo and produced path-breaking studies in German of Islamic laws and theology. Twentieth-century historian of Islam has largely followed the interests and methods of Orientalists. They have widened the scope of Islamic history by introducing new topics, and y using allied disciplines, such as economics, anthropology, and statistics, have refined many aspects f Orientalist studies. The historiography of Islam is a good example of how religion can be studied with modern historical methods by those who may not share the customs and beliefs of the people they are studying.

Reference: NCERT

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Nathuram Godse is one of the most mysterious characters in the Indian history about whom nothing much is available in documents. He was sentenced to death after executing the Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi. However, there is a lot of misinformation propagated about him by the successive governments.

Plight of Hindu and Sikh refugees:

Nathuram Godse, though branded a Hindu fanatic by successive governments of the country was a person with a kind heart which felt the pain of others. It was only after witnessing the plight of the Hindu and Sikh refugees that received lots of brutalities at the hands of Muslims in Pakistan, Godse became determined to execute Mahatma Gandhi who, according to him, was the prime reason for inviting such fate to the people of his country.

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Muslim appeasement:

Nathuram Godse was a devout nationalist who could not bear the development of Gandhi appeasing the Muslim population of the country especially Jinnah and being overly generous to Pakistan. Similar to many other youths in the country, Godse found Jinnah’s politics as mere blackmail and could not stand the fact that his motherland was divided into two parts in front of his eyes.

Avid Vir Savarkar follower:

He was among the very few who believed in the ideology of Vir Savarkar in a real way and moulded his thinking accordingly. Though he followed writings of Gandhi too, he was more influenced by Savarkar’s works and it was quite late (during BJP rule) that Savarkar model found application in the working of the country that would strengthen the social and economic set-up of the country. So he could also be termed as a visionary of his time. Though, his ideology was pro-Hindu but structurally faultless.

Freedom Fighter:

Unlike many other freedom fighters of the time, Nathuram Godse was a prominent name for his activities on the ground level. He followed Gandhi’s civil disobedience movement completely and could be termed as a valuable freedom fighter of the country. Had he not killed Gandhi, he would have been named as one of the foremost freedom fighters of the time, undoubtedly.

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A writer and editor:

Nathuram Godse was hailed as a very learned man of his time and he even ran a newspaper named “Agrani” along with his partner in crime Apte. He was the editor of the newspaper and wrote articles for it. This shows the level of his intellect and devotion towards the people of the nation.

Man with a cause:

Although, killing of Mahatma Gandhi cannot be justified in any way, Godse’s side of the story has always been suppressed by successive governments of the country. Not only were his books banned, he was also charged with sedition. He was always a man with a cause and after executing Gandhi he stood his ground and even called the police to arrest him. Alas, the story behind the scene could never come out in the open.

Kind hearted soul:

Those who label Godse to be Hindu fanatic are wrong in their facts and should recheck the source of misinformation. Nathuram Godse was a much learned man who worked with Hindu families during the time of partition without harming any Muslim. The majority of the Hindus and Muslims on both sides were busy spreading violence during the time of partition, but Godse not only helped the people of every religion, he saved their lives from the violent mob. The misinformation of him being a Hindu fanatic has been propagated wrongly by the government of the time.

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Social activist:

A Brahmin by birth, Nathuram Godse was brought up in a traditional Hindu culture. However, he grew up into a person with an independent ideology that differentiated him from others. He was very intelligent and didn’t value superstitions and social evils like untouchability. He even joined anti-caste movements and fought against such social evils of society with complete zeal.

Nathuram Godse Worshipped Gandhi from core of his heart:

It is said that Nathuram Godse was one of the strongest supporters of Gandhi during his youth days and even worshipped him for his ideologies related to life and nation. He bred no personal hatred against Gandhi and even bowed before the Mahatma during the morning prayers, just before he fired shots at him.

From Gandhi’s supporter to killer:

Though the majority of the Indians know that Nathuram Godse was a Gandhi follower, very few know the reason behind his decision to shoot the Father of the Nation. As per some documents written by Godse, the primary reason behind his assassination of Gandhi was the latter’s adherence to the  unjustified demand by Jinnah for issuing Rs. 55 crore for Pakistan. It is believed that at that time most youth in the country supported this decision.

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Without being a critique of movie Bajirao-Mastani, let’s take a look at what history says about the great warrior Peshwa Bajirao I. His name has earned a great respect in the Maratha History.

About Shrimant Thorale Bajirao Peshwa I

Firstly what is Peshwa?

Peshwa stands for the Prime Minister ( पंतप्रधान ), the post created by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj when he was coronated as Emperor (1674).

The post was created to delegate powers to his officers.The Peshwas were mostly from Brahmin family with nice knowledge of Economics,Hindu culture,Politics & War tactics.They were very cultured & strict about ethics & respected by all types of people.

The first Peshwa was Moropant Pingale.Then there were Ramchandra Amatya etc. In the tenure of Shivaji Maharaj Maratha empire was mainly in the west & central Maharashtra,some part of MP & Karnataka,some part of Tamil Nadu.

The first Peshwa that dominated Maratha empire was Balaji Viswanath Bhat. The Bhat family was then nominated as a legal Peshwa family.

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Peshwa Bajirao I (1700 to 1740)

Full name : Bajirao Balaji Bhat.

Also known as Thorale Bajirao or Rau. At the age of 20, he was appointed as Peshwa by Shahu Maharaj. He fought 41 battles & never lost any one. He is considered as one of the greatest Warriors of Indian History.(Not only in Maratha or Peshwa history ).In his Tenure, Maratha Empire spread in Entire Maharashtra, MP, South & East Gujarat,Bihar,East Rajasthan,Odisha, U.P. This is nearly four to five times as the area covered by Maratha kingdom in Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj tenure.

Bajirao was married to a typical Brahmin girl Kashibai. The Peshwa ladies were cultured, educated, very particular about Hindu culture & never used to talk loudly or laugh in public etc.

Mastani was a small part of Peshwa Bajirao lifespan & his tenure.She was a Multi-Talented Beautiful Princess of King Bundela from a Persian Muslim wife. She had Mastery in Sword Fighting,Horse Riding,Religious studies etc. King Chhatrasal Bundela offered Mastani’s hand to Bajirao because Bajirao helped him to save his kingdom from Mughals. And Bajirao-Mastani Love story started.

Mastani had a son from Bajirao. He was initially named Krishnarao and then renamed to Shamsherbahadur because of strong opposition of Brahmin people and family of Peshwa since they could not accept Muslim as a wife or Son of Peshwa. But that never affected the working of Maratha empire or Peshwa Bajiroa’s duties towards his army or people.
Bajirao was famous for his war tactics. He used to move his army very fast and attack the enemy before they could understand. For attacking Mughals in Delhi, His army covered a distance in 48 hrs, which was normally covered in 6 to 8 days,& they won the battle too.

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He converted Kasbah into large Pune city,& the city was divided into 18 parts (called as Peths)

He spent 70% of his life with soldiers in Camps, on Horses for traveling and in battlefield.

The noble Peshwa Bajirao died also in Shamiyana ( April 1740) near the battlefield in Madhya Pradesh. It was a sudden death.(supposedly sun stroke). He was cremated in Raverkhedi on Narmada river. The small memorial still exists in the village (but without any glamour and almost no visitors). People over there still respect him as Peshwa Sarkar. They call this place as “Peshwa Sarkar ka Mandir”.
Later Peshwas (Balaji, Raghunathrao, Madhavrao etc ) went up to Attock ( now in mid-Pakistan ) for spreading Empire.

Slowly British spread their wings (around 1800) in India. With sophisticated weapons and disciplined working, they became supreme power and the last Peshwa Bajirao 2nd signed a treaty with British & lost the power to rule India, in 1818.

None of the Peshwa lived for more than 40 years. They only fought for spreading and strengthening Maratha Empire.
But the Peshwas are always treated as just Brahmin dynasty which enjoyed the Kingdom of Shivaji Maharaj. And ignored in Indian & Maratha History.

In Maharashtra one can still see the Udayan Raje Bhosale, In Rajasthan one see VijayaRaje, in MP there is Madhavarao Scindia’s family ( originally Shinde).

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Emboldened with this success, Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act 1919. This Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-voilent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with hartal on 6 April

Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, add shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular upsurge and scared that lines of communication such as railways and telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided to clamp down on nationalists. Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

Jallianwalla Bagh

On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post office and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

On 13 April, the infamous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On that day a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla bah. Some came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures. Others had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.

Dyer entered the area, block the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd killing hundreds. His object, as he declared later, was to produce a moral effect, to create in the minds of satyagrahi a feeling of terror and awe.

As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attack on government building. The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people: satyagrahi were forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and do salam (salute) to all sahibs; people were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed. Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.

After effects

While the Rowlatt Satyagrah had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he was certain that no such movement could be organised without bringing Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of  doing this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue.

The first world was had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor – the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa). To defend Khalifas temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. A young generation of Muslim leader like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action on the issue Gandhi Jee saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslim under the umbrella of a unified national movement. at the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.

Women’s suffrage is the right of women to vote and to hold an elected office.

When did women get the right to vote?

Women have always had the right to vote, but this is far from the truth. Up until the 1900s, most democracies throughout history only allowed men to vote. This includes the democracies of Ancient Greece, the Roman Republic, and early democracies in Britain and the United States.

In the United States, women were not allowed to vote until the passage of the 19th amendment in 1920. That’s less than 100 years ago. In some countries, the date was much later, such as in Kuwait where women weren’t given the right to vote until 2005. In other countries, the date was earlier, as in New Zealand which pioneered women’s suffrage in 1893.

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History of Women’s Suffrage in the United States

Gaining equal rights for women including the right to vote in the United States was a long and slow process. The first real fight for women’s suffrage came out of the antislavery movement by the abolitionists in 1840s and 50s. These people felt that not only should slavery come to an end, but that all people should be treated equal regardless of race or gender.

Seneca Falls Convention

The first women’s rights convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Around 300 people attended the meeting which was led by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The main outcome of the meeting was the “Declaration of Sentiments”, a document similar to the Declaration of Independence. It stated that women should have equal rights to men including the right to vote.

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National Women’s Suffrage Association

In 1869, women leaders Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women’s Suffrage Association. The main goal of this group was to get an amendment passed that would allow women to vote. They wanted the 15th amendment to include the right for women to vote as well as people of any race. However, the 15th amendment passed in 1870 allowing all men regardless of race to vote, but not women.

Another women’s suffrage group was formed in 1869 called the American Woman Suffrage Association. The leaders of this group included Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe, and Henry Blackwell. The two groups disagreed on whether to support the 15th amendment without the right for women to vote.

In 1894, the two groups merged under the leadership of Susan B. Anthony and became the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Their main goal was to get the 19th amendment passed.

Gaining the Right to Vote in States

Although women did not have the right to vote from the federal government, they began to make progress in certain states and territories. In 1869, the Wyoming Territory granted the right to vote to women. Later, in 1890, Wyoming only agreed to join the Union as a state if women would be allowed to vote.

In 1893, Colorado became the first state to adopt an amendment that granted women voting rights. Soon other western states followed including Utah and Idaho in 1896 and Washington State in 1910. More and more states began to make amendments to their constitution and the momentum for the passage of the 19th amendment grew in the early 1900s.

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The 19th Amendment

In 1917, the National Women’s Party was formed to help fight for women’s rights. Leaders such as Alice Paul and Lucy Burns organized protests in Washington. At the time, President Woodrow Wilson was against the 19th amendment. Alice Paul was arrested and sent to jail where she held a hunger strike. In 1918, President Wilson changed his mind and decided to support the amendment and on August 26, 1920 the 19th Amendment was signed into law.

The Text of the 19th Amendment

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

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