The Indian prehistoric era is one of the most fascinating and intriguing eras to read about. It is estimated that the first humans to set their foot in the Indian sub-continent between 200000 B.C and 40000 B.C. Prehistoric India have been divided into four major eras. These are Stone Age, Paleolithic Era, Mesolithic Era and Neolithic Era. The Bronze Age is also mentioned here though it comes after these four eras. Information about Indian prehistory is given below.

Stone Age

• The Stone Age was the era when early man used stones for functional and useful purposes. The Stone Age is further classified into three categories which are the Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Neolithic Age.
• These divisions have been made on the basis of the kind of stone tools that were used during these times.

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Paleolithic Age

• The Paleolithic Age lasted till about 8000 B.C. In this age, the man was essentially a food gatherer. He learnt to make weapons out of stones and also mastered the skill of hunting animals.
• The crude weapons were slowly carved properly and were made sharp and pointed. These special weapons were made by shredding the sides of a stone with a heavier stone.
• The man also learnt how to create fire and make use of it. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living.

Mesolithic Age

• The Mesolithic Age lasted from 8000 B.C – 4000 B.C. In this age the size of the groups grew to form small communities. The number of mouths to feed increased and needed constant nurturing for continuation.
• There was a drastic change in the food and clothing of the man. The tools were modified and now the sharp stones were attached to strong tree branches using ropes and vines.These new weapons or hand axes could be flung on animals from a safe distance.
• Apart from this, farming techniques were developed and the man began to grow crops. The man also learnt to draw and paint and the evidence is found in the form of cave paintings found in India.

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Neolithic Age

• Neolithic (New Stone Age) settlements in the Indian sub-continent are not older than 4000 BC. The Neolithic Age lasted from 4000 B.C – 2500 B.C and is known as the last stage of the Stone Age era.
• The main features of this age were the finely flaked weapons and small tools made of stone that were used for day to day work. This age also saw domestication of cows, horses and other poultry and farm animals. Their products were used for dairy and meat items.
• The wheel, which was a very important invention, was created during this age. Shortly after this age around 1800 B.C, tools were made of copper and bronze and were used for many practical purposes.

Bronze Age

• The Bronze Age is the era when metals were used and improvised for making tools and other weapons. This age came immediately after the Neolithic Age and aided in the development of the metallurgy industry.
• It came into being in 3500 B.C in the Middle East. The Bronze Age in India is roughly estimated to have begun around 3300 B.C. It almost coincided with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• People living in Indus Valley produced bronze, copper and tin thus developing new techniques of metallurgy.

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The Indus Valley Civilization

Significance of the Harappan Civilization

• Farming began around 10,000 B.C. during the First Agricultural Revolution, when nomadic tribes began to farm.
• The Industrial Revolution led to faster and more efficient farming technology, which helped usher in the Second Agricultural Revolution from 1700 to 1900 in developed countries.
• The Green Revolution corresponds in the late 20th century with the exponential population growth occurring around the world. It includes biotechnology, genetic engineering, chemical fertilizers, and mass production of agricultural goods.
• Fruit farming began sometime between 6000 and 3000 B.C. Figs were one of the first cultivated fruit crops.
• Plows were invented in the Middle East soon after agriculture began. The earliest plow, called an ard, was probably made from sharpened tree branches. The plow has been cited as one of the most important inventions in the advancement of society.
• The Mesopotamians built the first simple irrigation system around 7000 B.C. The earliest large-scale irrigation system was created around 4000 B.C. in southern Russia. This system had canals up to 10 feet across and more than a mile long.
• In A.D. 644, Arab scientists developed a windmill to pump water for irrigation. By the year 1000, Arabs introduced fertilizers to enrich farm soil.
• In the early 1900s, Mary Isabel Fraser visited China and brought back seeds to New Zealand. She grew the first crop of kiwi in 1910. Today, New Zealand produces 1/3 of the world’s supply of kiwi.
• Bananas are the number one fruit crop in the world. They are the 4th largest overall crop, after wheat, rice, and corn. They grow in more than 100 countries on farms. India grows more bananas than any other country.
• Tractors were invented in the 1880s to pull plows through fields. By the 1920s,  all-purpose, the modern tractor had been developed. With different attachments, tractors can be used for plowing, planting, cultivating, mowing, harvesting, and moving soil and heavy equipment.
• According to many historians, goats were the first animal to be domesticated. Goats are typically the cleanest of animals. They are much more select feeders than cows, chickens, or even dogs. They typically will not eat food that has been contaminated or that has been on the floor or ground.
• The word “farm” is from the Old French ferme, meaning to “rent, lease,” and the Latin firmare, “to fix, settle, confirm, strengthen.”
• The four major biotech crops in 2012 were soybean, cotton, maize, and canola.
• In 2012, 17 million farmers in 28 countries planted 170 million hectares of biotech crops.
• Most concerns about genetically modified crops fall into three categories: a) environmental hazards, b) human health risks, and c) economic concerns.
• Monsanto Company is the leading producing of genetically engineered (GE) seed.
• Cyrus McCormick is considered the “Father of Modern Agriculture.” He invented the world’s first mechanical reaper in 1831, which helped replace manpower for machine power to harvest crops. His invention is often cited as key in the westward expansion of the United States. Jo Anderson, a slave, also worked with McCormick to develop the mechanical reaper.

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Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

Agricultural Sustainability And Green Farming

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)

Lord Canning (1858-1862)

• Lord Canning was made the first Viceroy of India.
• 5% income tax was imposed on all are links beyond Rs. 500 a year.
• High courts were set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras under the provisions of the Indian High Courts act of 1861.

Lord Elgin Ist (1861-1863)

The most important event of his time over the suppression of the Wahabi tribe of the fanatic Muslims inhabiting the North West Frontier.

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Lord John Lawrence (1864-1869)

• An important event of this time was the war against Bhutan in 1865.
• The Punjab and Oudh Tenancy Act, 1860, was enacted.
• Two famines hit India; first in 1800 in Orrisa and second in 1868-69 in Bundelkhand and Rajputana.
• A Famine Commission was set up under the chairmanship of Sir Henry Campbell .

Lord Mayo (1869-1872)

• For the first time in my Indian history census was held in 1871.
• The college was set up and Ajmer to impart suitable education to the sons of the Indian princess. Subsequently, this college came to known as the ‘Mayo College”.

Lord Northbrook (1872-1876)

•  deposition of Gaekwad in 1874;
• the Kuka movement;
• visit of Prince of Wales;
• abolition of income tax;
• famine in Bihar and Bengal in 1873-1874.

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Lord Lytton (1876-1880)

• Statutory Civil Service in 1879.
• It was also laid down that the candidates had to appear and pass the civil services examination which began to be held in England.
• The maximum age for these candidates was reduced from 21 to 19 years.

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

• Resolution in 1882 for the institution of local self-government in India.
• Constitution of the Hunter commission on education (1882).
• The maximum age of admission to civil services raised to 21.

Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

His period witnessed the third Anglo-Burmese war which led to the accession of upper Burma.

Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• enactment of second factory act;
• demarcation of the Indo-Afghan border (Durand Line);
• Second Indian council Act (1892).

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Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

The bubonic plague in Bombay in 1896 and severe draught in Bikaner and Hissar district were some of the important events of his period.

Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

• The Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900, prohibited the sale of agricultural lands for its attachment in execution of a decree
• In order to preserve and protect ancient monuments of India, he passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act, and Archaeological Department was established in 1901.
• The setup of Police Commission under the Chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer in 1902.
• A Criminal Investigation Department was opened in each district. In 1901 the Imperial Cadet Corps was set up.

Lord Minto II (1905-1910)

His stint as viceroy is famous for the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 which provided for the separate electorate to Muslims.

Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916)

• In 1911 the capital of the country was announced to be shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
• In 1912, Delhi became the new capital.
• The First World War broke out in 1914.
• In 1916, Lord Hardinge laid the foundation of the Benaras Hindu University. Madan Mohan Malaviya was the Founder-Chancellor of this university.

Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)

• Enactment of the Government of India, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms) which introduced dyarchy in the provinces;
• enactment of Rowlatt Act (1919);
• the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919);
• and the beginning of the Non-cooperation Movement

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Lord Reading (1921-26)

Held of the Non-Corporation Movement (1922); arrival of the Prince of Wales (1921); and the outbreak of the Moplah Revolt (1921) was some of the events of his period.

Lord Irwin (1926-31)

• Appointment of Simon commission in 1928.
• Passing of the resolution for complete independence (purna smarajya)in 1929.
• Launching of the civil Disobedience movement.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931;

Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)

• The second Around Table Conference, 1931 ;
• Restarting of the Disobedience Movement, 1931
• Third Round Table Conference, 1932
• The Government of India Of 1935;

Lord Linlithgow (1936-44)

• Longest reign as viceroy of India
• Beginning of the Second World War.
• Coming into force of the Government of India Act 1935 with provinces going to elections.
• Beginning of the Quit India Movement

Lord Wavell (1944-1947)

• His period is famous for the Shimla conference, 1945;
• The arrival of the Cabinet Mission, 1946;
• the Constituent Assembly boycotted by the Muslim League which launched the heinous “Direct Action Day” on August 16, 1946;
• the Interim Government under Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru’s leadership

Lord Mountbatten, (March 1947-June 1948)

• Declaration of third June 1947;
• Indian Independence Act, Partition of the country between two independent states of India and Pakistan with Lord Mountbatten and Mr. M.A. Jinnah as their respective Governor generals.

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BRITISH RULE-LORD WAVELL (1942-47)