Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Classical vs Quantum View of Barriers
3. What Is Quantum Tunneling?
4. Mathematical Description
5. Tunneling Through a Rectangular Potential Barrier
6. Transmission and Reflection Coefficients
7. Probability Current and Flux Conservation
8. Tunneling Time and the Hartman Effect
9. WKB Approximation and Tunneling
10. Factors Affecting Tunneling Probability
11. Alpha Decay and Nuclear Tunneling
12. Tunneling in Semiconductors and Electronics
13. Quantum Dots, Josephson Junctions, and STM
14. Tunneling in Chemical Reactions
15. Quantum vs Classical Energy Barriers
16. Philosophical and Conceptual Implications
17. Conclusion

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1. Introduction

Quantum tunneling is one of the most striking and non-intuitive phenomena in quantum physics. It allows particles to penetrate and cross energy barriers that they could never overcome classically. This effect plays a central role in nuclear physics, semiconductors, chemical dynamics, and modern quantum technologies.

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2. Classical vs Quantum View of Barriers

Classical:

• A particle with energy \( E \) less than a potential \( V_0 \) cannot enter the region \( V(x) > E \)

Quantum:

• The particle’s wavefunction penetrates into and through the barrier
• There’s a non-zero probability of finding it on the other side

---

3. What Is Quantum Tunneling?

Quantum tunneling is the phenomenon where a particle:

• Encounters a potential barrier
• Has insufficient energy to overcome it classically
• Yet still appears on the far side of the barrier with a certain probability

This arises from the wave nature of particles.

---

4. Mathematical Description

We solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation across three regions:

\[
-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2 \psi(x)}{dx^2} + V(x) \psi(x) = E \psi(x)
\]

Let:

• Region I: \( x < 0 \) (free)
• Region II: \( 0 < x < a \) (barrier \( V_0 > E \))
• Region III: \( x > a \) (free)

---

5. Tunneling Through a Rectangular Potential Barrier

Assume:

\[
V(x) = \begin{cases}
0, & x < 0 \ V_0, & 0 < x < a \ 0, & x > a
\end{cases}
\]

Solution:

• Region I: \( \psi_I = Ae^{ikx} + Be^{-ikx} \)
• Region II: \( \psi_{II} = Ce^{\kappa x} + De^{-\kappa x} \), with \( \kappa = \sqrt{2m(V_0 – E)}/\hbar \)
• Region III: \( \psi_{III} = Fe^{ikx} \)

---

6. Transmission and Reflection Coefficients

Apply boundary conditions for continuity and smoothness at \( x = 0 \) and \( x = a \).

Transmission coefficient:

\[
T = \frac{|F|^2}{|A|^2} = \frac{1}{1 + \frac{V_0^2 \sinh^2(\kappa a)}{4E(V_0 – E)}}
\]

For thick barriers:

\[
T \approx e^{-2\kappa a}
\]

Shows exponential suppression of tunneling probability with barrier width and height.

---

7. Probability Current and Flux Conservation

Define probability current:

\[
j = \frac{\hbar}{2mi} \left( \psi^* \frac{d\psi}{dx} – \psi \frac{d\psi^*}{dx} \right)
\]

• Ensures flux conservation: \( j_{\text{in}} = j_{\text{trans}} + j_{\text{ref}} \)
• Tunneling does not violate probability conservation

---

8. Tunneling Time and the Hartman Effect

Tunneling time is debated:

• How long does the particle spend inside the barrier?
• Hartman effect: tunneling time becomes independent of barrier width for thick barriers
• Raises questions about superluminal speeds, but does not violate causality

---

9. WKB Approximation and Tunneling

In the WKB (semiclassical) approximation, tunneling probability is:

\[
T \approx \exp\left(-\frac{2}{\hbar} \int_{x_1}^{x_2} \sqrt{2m(V(x) – E)}\, dx \right)
\]

Where \( x_1 \), \( x_2 \) are classical turning points.

Useful for smooth and slowly varying barriers.

---

10. Factors Affecting Tunneling Probability

• Barrier width \( a \): wider ⇒ less tunneling
• Barrier height \( V_0 \): higher ⇒ less tunneling
• Particle mass \( m \): heavier ⇒ less tunneling
• Energy \( E \): closer to \( V_0 \) ⇒ more tunneling

Tunneling is sensitive to small changes in parameters.

---

11. Alpha Decay and Nuclear Tunneling

Alpha particles inside nuclei are trapped by nuclear potential. Tunneling allows escape:

• Explains radioactive decay
• Lifetimes depend exponentially on barrier width and height
• First success of quantum tunneling in explaining a real-world phenomenon

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12. Tunneling in Semiconductors and Electronics

• Tunnel diodes: use quantum tunneling for ultra-fast switching
• Flash memory: stores data via tunneling through oxide layers
• MOSFETs: leakage current arises from tunneling in thin oxide layers

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13. Quantum Dots, Josephson Junctions, and STM

• Quantum dots: electrons tunnel between confined energy levels
• Josephson junctions: tunneling of Cooper pairs (superconductivity)
• Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): measures tunneling current between tip and sample

Tunneling enables atomic-resolution imaging.

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14. Tunneling in Chemical Reactions

• Tunneling allows protons or electrons to bypass activation barriers
• Explains low-temperature reactions in astrophysics and biology
• Influences enzyme catalysis and quantum tunneling effects (QTEs) in chemistry

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15. Quantum vs Classical Energy Barriers

Aspect	Classical	Quantum
Barrier traversal	Forbidden if \( E < V \)	Possible with non-zero probability
Probabilistic?	No	Yes
Depends on phase?	No	Yes (wave nature)
Key result	Total reflection	Partial transmission via tunneling

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16. Philosophical and Conceptual Implications

• Challenges classical determinism
• Reveals nonlocal effects of quantum theory
• Raises questions about temporal locality and measurement
• Illustrates that probability amplitudes, not just energy, govern motion

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17. Conclusion

Quantum tunneling is a fascinating quantum effect that has profound implications for both theory and technology. It illustrates the deep departure from classical intuition and explains a vast array of natural and engineered phenomena, from nuclear decay to modern electronics. Its understanding is essential for mastering quantum mechanics and leveraging its principles in advanced applications.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Physical Setup of the Finite Square Well
3. Mathematical Formulation
4. Schrödinger Equation in Different Regions
5. Bound State Conditions
6. Even and Odd Solutions
7. Transcendental Equations for Energy Levels
8. Number of Bound States
9. Comparison with Infinite Square Well
10. Normalized Wavefunctions
11. Probability Density and Penetration into Barriers
12. Quantum Tunneling and Decay
13. Energy Quantization and Graphical Solutions
14. Semi-Classical Approximation
15. Real-World Applications
16. Conclusion

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1. Introduction

The finite square well is a foundational quantum mechanical model used to illustrate bound states, tunneling, and the emergence of discrete energy levels within a potential that is not infinite. It represents a more realistic version of the infinite potential well and is widely applicable in solid-state physics and quantum devices.

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2. Physical Setup of the Finite Square Well

The potential \( V(x) \) is defined as:

\[
V(x) = \begin{cases}
-V_0, & \text{for } |x| \le a \
0, & \text{for } |x| > a
\end{cases}
\]

• Depth: \( V_0 > 0 \)
• Width: \( 2a \)
• Particle mass: \( m \)

---

3. Mathematical Formulation

We solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation:

\[
-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2 \psi(x)}{dx^2} + V(x)\psi(x) = E\psi(x)
\]

We consider bound states: \( -V_0 < E < 0 \)

---

4. Schrödinger Equation in Different Regions

Let:

• Region I: \( x < -a \)
• Region II: \( |x| \le a \)
• Region III: \( x > a \)

Region I and III:

\[
\frac{d^2 \psi}{dx^2} = \kappa^2 \psi, \quad \kappa = \sqrt{\frac{-2mE}{\hbar^2}}
\]

\[
\psi(x) \propto e^{-\kappa |x|}
\]

Region II:

\[
\frac{d^2 \psi}{dx^2} = -k^2 \psi, \quad k = \sqrt{\frac{2m(E + V_0)}{\hbar^2}}
\]

\[
\psi(x) \propto \cos(kx) \text{ or } \sin(kx)
\]

---

5. Bound State Conditions

The wavefunction must be:

• Continuous at \( x = \pm a \)
• Smooth (derivative continuous)
• Normalizable (finite total probability)

---

6. Even and Odd Solutions

Symmetric potential allows classification:

• Even parity: \( \psi(x) = \psi(-x) \)
  \[
  \psi(x) = \begin{cases}
  A \cos(kx), & |x| \le a \
  B e^{-\kappa x}, & x > a
  \end{cases}
  \]
• Odd parity: \( \psi(x) = -\psi(-x) \)
  \[
  \psi(x) = \begin{cases}
  A \sin(kx), & |x| \le a \
  B e^{-\kappa x}, & x > a
  \end{cases}
  \]

---

7. Transcendental Equations for Energy Levels

Apply boundary conditions to obtain:

Even states:

\[
k \tan(ka) = \kappa
\]

Odd states:

\[
k \cot(ka) = -\kappa
\]

Use:

\[
k = \sqrt{\frac{2m(E + V_0)}{\hbar^2}}, \quad \kappa = \sqrt{\frac{-2mE}{\hbar^2}}
\]

These transcendental equations must be solved graphically or numerically.

---

8. Number of Bound States

Finite number of bound states, depending on well parameters:

\[
\lambda = \frac{a}{\hbar} \sqrt{2mV_0}
\]

Each solution to the transcendental equation gives one bound state. As \( V_0 \to \infty \), the number of bound states increases.

---

9. Comparison with Infinite Square Well

Property	Infinite Well	Finite Well
Wall Height	\( \infty \)	Finite
Energy Levels	\( E_n \propto n^2 \)	Levels determined numerically
Penetration	None	Exponential decay into classically forbidden regions
Number of States	Infinite	Finite

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10. Normalized Wavefunctions

Wavefunctions are continuous and piecewise-defined. Normalization involves integrating over both well and tail regions.

\[
\int_{-\infty}^\infty |\psi(x)|^2 dx = 1
\]

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11. Probability Density and Penetration into Barriers

• \( |\psi(x)|^2 \) decays exponentially in regions \( |x| > a \)
• Probability of finding the particle outside the well is non-zero
• Demonstrates quantum tunneling

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12. Quantum Tunneling and Decay

A particle confined in a well can leak into classically forbidden regions — a feature absent in classical mechanics. This is the basis of:

• Nuclear alpha decay
• Electron tunneling in semiconductors
• Quantum scanning devices

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13. Energy Quantization and Graphical Solutions

Plot left and right-hand sides of:

\[
k \tan(ka) = \kappa \quad \text{and} \quad k \cot(ka) = -\kappa
\]

Intersections determine allowed \( k \), and hence allowed energies \( E_n \).

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14. Semi-Classical Approximation

In large wells or for high energies:

• Energy levels become closer together
• Bound state energies approach those of the infinite well
• WKB approximation gives accurate estimates

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15. Real-World Applications

• Modeling quantum dots, wells, and barriers
• Explaining tunneling and resonance in electronics
• Foundations of quantum well lasers, MOSFETs, and heterostructures

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16. Conclusion

The finite square well introduces the important concept of bound quantum states in finite potentials and demonstrates the tunneling effect. Its blend of analytic and numerical richness makes it an essential tool for building quantum intuition, with wide applications in physics, chemistry, and nanotechnology.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Concept of the Infinite Square Well
3. Mathematical Formulation
4. Schrödinger Equation Inside the Well
5. Boundary Conditions and Wavefunction Form
6. Quantized Energy Levels
7. Normalized Wavefunctions
8. Probability Distributions and Nodes
9. Expectation Values and Uncertainty
10. Comparison with Classical Mechanics
11. Time Evolution of Superpositions
12. 3D Infinite Potential Well
13. Applications in Nanotechnology and Quantum Dots
14. Idealization and Realistic Potentials
15. Conclusion

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1. Introduction

The infinite potential well, also known as the particle in a box, is one of the most fundamental models in quantum mechanics. It exemplifies how quantum confinement leads to energy quantization, and is a cornerstone for understanding more complex systems like atoms, molecules, and quantum wells in nanotechnology.

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2. Concept of the Infinite Square Well

• A particle is confined between two impenetrable walls at \( x = 0 \) and \( x = L \)
• The potential \( V(x) \) is defined as:

\[
V(x) = \begin{cases}
0, & 0 < x < L \
\infty, & \text{otherwise}
\end{cases}
\]

• The particle is strictly confined in the region \( (0, L) \)

---

3. Mathematical Formulation

Inside the well, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is:

\[
\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2\psi(x)}{dx^2} = E \psi(x)
\]

Outside the well, \( \psi(x) = 0 \) due to the infinite potential.

---

4. Schrödinger Equation Inside the Well

Define:

\[
k^2 = \frac{2mE}{\hbar^2}
\]

The general solution inside the well is:

\[
\psi(x) = A \sin(kx) + B \cos(kx)
\]

Apply boundary conditions to determine constants.

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5. Boundary Conditions and Wavefunction Form

• At \( x = 0 \), \( \psi(0) = 0 \) ⇒ \( B = 0 \)
• At \( x = L \), \( \psi(L) = 0 \) ⇒ \( \sin(kL) = 0 \)

So:

\[
k = \frac{n\pi}{L}, \quad n = 1, 2, 3, \dots
\]

Thus, wavefunctions are:

\[
\psi_n(x) = A_n \sin\left( \frac{n\pi x}{L} \right)
\]

---

6. Quantized Energy Levels

Plug \( k \) into energy expression:

\[
E_n = \frac{n^2 \pi^2 \hbar^2}{2mL^2}
\]

Key features:

• Discrete, non-zero ground state energy
• Increases with \( n^2 \)
• No degeneracy in 1D

---

7. Normalized Wavefunctions

Normalization condition:

\[
\int_0^L |\psi_n(x)|^2 dx = 1
\]

Gives:

\[
\psi_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{2}{L}} \sin\left( \frac{n\pi x}{L} \right)
\]

Each \( n \) corresponds to a unique eigenstate.

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8. Probability Distributions and Nodes

• \( |\psi_n(x)|^2 \) gives probability density
• Number of nodes = \( n – 1 \)
• Higher \( n \): more oscillatory behavior

Expectation values:

\[
\langle x \rangle = \frac{L}{2}, \quad \langle x^2 \rangle = \frac{L^2}{3} – \frac{L^2}{2\pi^2 n^2}
\]

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9. Expectation Values and Uncertainty

Uncertainty in position:

\[
\Delta x = \sqrt{\langle x^2 \rangle – \langle x \rangle^2}
\]

Increases with \( n \), but still bounded due to confinement.

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10. Comparison with Classical Mechanics

• Classical particle has uniform probability across the well
• Quantum particle has non-uniform, oscillating probability
• As \( n \to \infty \), quantum distribution approaches classical (correspondence principle)

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11. Time Evolution of Superpositions

General state:

\[
\Psi(x,t) = \sum_n c_n \psi_n(x) e^{-iE_n t/\hbar}
\]

• Leads to quantum beating, revivals, and interference
• Time-dependence arises from phase factors \( e^{-iE_n t/\hbar} \)

---

12. 3D Infinite Potential Well

For a cubic box of size \( L \):

\[
\psi_{n_x,n_y,n_z}(x,y,z) = \left( \frac{2}{L} \right)^{3/2} \sin\left( \frac{n_x \pi x}{L} \right) \sin\left( \frac{n_y \pi y}{L} \right) \sin\left( \frac{n_z \pi z}{L} \right)
\]

\[
E = \frac{\pi^2 \hbar^2}{2mL^2} (n_x^2 + n_y^2 + n_z^2)
\]

Degeneracy occurs for states with same \( n_x^2 + n_y^2 + n_z^2 \).

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13. Applications in Nanotechnology and Quantum Dots

• Electrons in quantum wells and nanostructures behave like particles in boxes
• Infinite well approximates confinement in thin films and quantum dots
• Optical properties and energy levels are engineered using well geometry

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14. Idealization and Realistic Potentials

• Infinite well is an ideal model
• Real systems have finite potential barriers
• Leads to tunneling, resonance, and bound states with leakage

Still, infinite wells give excellent qualitative insight.

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15. Conclusion

The infinite potential well offers a crystal-clear example of quantum confinement, discrete energy levels, and wavefunction behavior. Though idealized, it forms the basis of quantum mechanics education and inspires real-world applications in nanophysics, photonics, and quantum computing. It captures the essence of quantization — the idea that even free particles can only exist in discrete energy states due to boundary conditions.

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