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Enzymes

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Syskool
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enzymes

Enzymes are special types of proteins. Like all proteins, enzymes are made from strings of amino acids. The function of the enzyme is determined by the sequence of amino acids, types of amino acids, and the shape of the string.

Enzymes are responsible for a lot of the work that is going on in cells. They act as catalysts in order to help produce and speed up chemical reactions. When a cell needs to get something done, it almost always uses an enzyme to speed things along.

Enzymes are Specific

Enzymes are very specific. This means that each type of enzyme only reacts with the specific type of substance that it was made for. This is important so enzyme don’t go around doing the wrong thing and causing chemical reactions where they are aren’t supposed to.

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How Enzymes Work

Enzymes have a special pocket on their surface called an “active site.” The molecule that they are supposed to react with fits neatly right into that pocket. The molecule or substance that the enzyme reacts with is called the “substrate.”

The reaction takes place between the enzyme and the substrate at the active site. After the reaction is complete, the new molecule or substance is released by the enzyme. This new substance is called the “product.”

Things that Affect Enzyme Activity

The environment of the enzyme and the substrate can affect the speed of the reaction. In some cases, the environment can cause the enzyme to stop working or even untravel. When an enzyme stops working we call it “denatured.” Here are some things that can affect enzyme activity:

  • Temperature – The temperature can affect the reaction rate. The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction will occur. However, at some point, the temperature will become so high that the enzyme will denature and stop working.
  • pH – In many cases the pH level, or acidity, of the environment around the enzyme and substrate can affect the reaction rate. An extreme pH (high or low) will typically slow the reaction or even stop the reaction altogether.
  • Concentration – A higher concentration of substrate or enzyme can increase the reaction rate.
  • Inhibitors – Inhibitors are molecules that are specially made to stop the activity of enzymes. They may just slow down the reaction or stop it altogether. Some inhibitors bond with the enzyme causing it to change shape and not work correctly. The opposite of an inhibitor is an activator which can help to speed up the reaction.

Read Also: Surprising Benefits of eating Almonds

Interesting Facts about Enzymes

  • Enzymes don’t get used up after they do their job. They can be used over and over.
  • Many drugs and poisons act as inhibitors to enzymes. Some snake venoms are inhibitors.
  • Enzyme is often used in industrial applications such as food processing, paper manufacturing, and detergents.
  • There is an enzyme in your saliva called amylase that helps to break down starches as you chew.
  • Enzymes play an important role in breaking down our food so our bodies can use it. There are special enzymes to break down different types of foods. They are found in our saliva, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.

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Medicines and Pharmaceutical Drugs

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Syskool
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Pharmaceutical Drugs

Pharmaceutical drugs are chemical substances that help to cure, prevent, or relieve the symptoms of illnesses.

What are medicines made from?

Historically medicines have been made from natural sources such as plants, animals, molds, bacteria, and minerals. A lot of medicines are still made from natural sources, especially plants. However, most medicines are “synthetic” medicines. This means that they are made by chemists in labs.

Must Read: Carbohydrates

Making a New Drug

In order to make a new Pharmaceutical Drugs, companies do a lot of research and testing. There are certain steps that are usually followed:

  1. Research – The first step in making a new drug is research. Scientists study what causes a disease or a symptom. They may study the pathogens (germs) that cause a disease or what makes a certain symptom occur. They then run experiments in the lab to see what chemicals may work. They also use supercomputers to run computer models.
  2. Testing on animals – The next phase is testing on animals. Once they have had success in testing on animals, they will apply to the FDA for approval to begin testing on humans.
  3. Testing on humans – Testing on humans takes place in three phases.
  4. Phase I trials – In the first phase, the drug is tested for safety on a small group of 20-80 people.
  5. Phase II trials – In the second phase, the drug is tested on 100-300 people for efficacy. Efficacy is a measurement of how well the drug works. Some people take the actual drug while others take a placebo. A placebo is just a sugar pill with no real drugs in it. This phase helps researchers determine if the drug is truly effective.
  6. Phase III trials – In the third phase, much larger groups of people are tested, typically over 1,000. The effectiveness and side effects are further determined during this phase.
  7. New Drug Application – If the trials are successful, then the pharmaceutical company will apply to the FDA for a New Drug Application.
  8. FDA Approval – If the FDA approves, then the drug can be sold.

Making a new Pharmaceutical Drugs takes many years and typically costs millions of dollars.

Also Read: Powerful Benefits of Vitamin C

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

In the United States, the government has regulations in order to insure that drugs are as safe as possible. Companies must run certain tests and pass requirements before they can sell a drug. The agency that watches over drugs is called the Food and Drug Administration, which is often shortened to FDA.

Types of Drugs

Most legal drugs can be divided into two categories:

  • Prescription – Prescription drugs require approval from a doctor to purchase. They are handed out by pharmacists who insure that the correct doses are given and that people understand the proper way to take the drug.
  • Over the Counter – Over the counter drugs can be purchased without a prescription. Examples of these include pain relievers such as Avil and aspirin, cough syrup, and sinus medicine.

Ways of Taking Drugs

Pharmaceutical drugs can be administered by a number of methods including pills, shots (ouch!), creams, eye drops, inhalers, mists, and through an IV (intravenous).

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Side Effects

Most drugs have side effects. You should always read the labels of any drugs you take and follow the instructions, doses, and warnings. If you experience any side effects, stop taking the drug immediately and contact your doctor.

*** NOTE: Just because a drug is “safe” and “over the counter” you must still follow the instructions. Taking too much of any drug is VERY dangerous and can even kill you. Kids should never take medicine without the help of a parent, nurse, or doctor.

Interesting Facts about Medicine and Pharmaceutical Drugs

  • Some medicine tastes bad to discourage children from taking too much of it.
  • Antibiotics are drugs that kill bacteria.
  • Some drugs, like vaccines, keep people from getting sick in the first place.
  • Some drugs help to provide substances that our body can no longer make. Insulin injections help to replace insulin that the pancreas can no longer make for people that have Type I diabetes.
  • The scientific name for drugs that reduce pain (painkillers) is “analgesics”.

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Know about Sir Edmund Hillary

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Syskool
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Sir Edmund Hillary

Sir Edmund Hillary (1919 – 2008) was an explorer and mountain climber. Together with Sherpa Tenzing Norgay, he was the first to climb to the summit of Mount Everest, the tallest mountain in the world. Edmund Hillary was born in Auckland, New Zealand on July 20, 1919. He became interested in climbing when he was 16 years old and climbed his first major mountain when he was 20. He continued his love for exploring and climbing mountains in the coming years, scaling many mountains.

Must Read: 31 Important Mountain Pass in India

The Everest Expedition

In 1953 the British had received approval to make an attempt at scaling Mount Everest. The government of Nepal would only allow one expedition a year, so this was a big deal. The leader of the expedition, John Hunt, asked Hillary to join in the climb.

When climbing a mountain as high as Mount Everest, a large group of people are needed. There were over 400 members of the expedition. They climbed the mountain in stages, moving to a higher camp every few weeks and then getting acclimated to the high altitude. At each stage fewer and fewer people would continue to climb. Once they got to the final camp, there were two teams chosen to climb the last stage to the summit. One team was Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay. The other team was Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans. The team of Bourdillon and Evans tried first, but they failed to make it to the top. They got within 300 feet but had to turn back.

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Final Stage

Finally, on May 28, 1953, Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing got their chance to try for the summit. They ran into some difficulties, including a 40-foot rock wall that is today called ‘Hillary’s Step’, but they made it to the top. They were the first to climb to the top of the world! Because the air was so thin, they only stayed at the top for a few minutes before returning to tell the world of their achievement.

Exploration After Everest

Although Sir Edmund Hillary is mostly famous for being the first to the top of Mount Everest, he continued to climb other mountains and to be a world explorer. He climbed many other peaks in the Himalayas over the next several years.

In 1958 Sir Edmund Hillary took an expedition to the South Pole. His group was the third to ever reach the South Pole over land and the first to do it using motor vehicles.

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Facts about Sir Edmund Hillary

  • Hikers are often called “trampers” in New Zealand.
  • Sir Edmund was 6 feet 5 inches tall.
  • Sir Edmund Hillary was a navigator with the New Zealand Royal Air Force during World War II.
  • He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II after reaching the top of Everest. This is why you often see him referred to as “Sir”.
  • Mount Everest is 29,029 feet high. It is named after a British general who surveyed India named Sir George Everest. The local name for the mountain is Chomolungma, which means ‘Mother Goddess of the Sky’.
  • Sir Edmund Hillary wrote several books about his adventures including High Adventure, No Latitude for Error, and The Crossing of Antarctica.

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Who are Entrepreneurs?

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Syskool
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entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurs are someone who starts and develops a business. The entrepreneur generally takes on some financial and career risk in beginning the business, but can also reap the rewards if the business is ultimately successful.

Famous Entrepreneurs

There are have been many famous entrepreneurs throughout history. Here is a list of some of the most famous.
  • Andrew Carnegie – Built up a steel business in the late 1800s that became a monopoly. Was also known for his philanthropy (charity).
  • Thomas Edison – An inventor who made a business out of creating a large number of innovative new products such as the light bulb and the phonograph.
  • Henry Ford – Began the Ford Motor Company. He made cars affordable to the average person by building cars in high volume for the first time.
  • Bill Gates – Co-founder and leader of the software company Microsoft.
  • Walt Disney – Began Walt Disney Studios creating the first feature length animated movies such as Snow White. Also, built the theme park Disneyland.
  • Milton Hershey – Started the Hershey chocolate company and founded Hershey, Pennsylvania. He made chocolate affordable for the average person by producing good tasting chocolate in large volume.
  • Steve Jobs – Co-founder of Apple Computer. Helped to revive Apple with the iPod and iPhone. Also helped to found the computer animation company Pixar.
  • John D. Rockefeller – Formed the Standard Oil Company and became the richest man in history.
  • Martha Stewart – Created her own famous brand of products through cook books and TV shows.
  • Levi Strauss – A successful merchant in San Francisco during the California Gold Rush who manufactured the first blue jeans and started Levi Strauss & Co.
  • Sam Walton – Founder of the retail store chain Walmart who brought discount prices and large stores to rural
    areas.
  • Oprah Winfrey – TV talk show host and actress who created an entertainment empire including her own magazine and TV network.

Must Read: Famous scientists and their Contribution or Discoveries

What does it take to be a successful entrepreneur?

Anyone can become an entrepreneur, but what makes an entrepreneur successful? While each one is very unique in their own way, many successful entrepreneurs have similar characteristics:

  • Hard work – Most entrepreneurs are hard workers. They get up early and work hard all day. When the business is first starting, they work long hours for little or no pay.
  • Risk taking – Starting a new business can be very risky. Most entrepreneurs take a great risk when they first start out, giving up a secure job and putting their personal finances on the line.
  • Innovative – Entrepreneurs are generally innovative. They have new ideas and are willing to try new things.
  • Willing to fail – If you read above, you will find that many of these famous entrepreneurs actually failed before they were successful. They learned from their mistakes and used them to improve their business.
  • Leaders – Many entrepreneurs are good leaders. They are able to gather talented people around them who help them to succeed.
  • Competitive – Entrepreneurs want to win. They are willing to take risk and work hard to get to the
    top.

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Surprising Eating Benefits of Almonds

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Syskool
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benefits of almonds
Almond or Badam is one of the earliest cultivated trees, mainly popular for their seeds. The seeds of almonds are enclosed within a hard, stony shell surrounded with succulent pulp, just like the peach fruit. But unlike peaches, you don’t have to wait for a specific season to reap the benefits of almonds. They are available throughout the year to add flavour to your dessert and spicy dishes. Almonds are nutrient dense super foods that offer some amazing benefits of almonds.

Amazing Benefits of Almonds

1.Helps to control and lose weight: Although almonds are rich in carbohydrates and total calories, they have proven to help weight loss and control. A low-calorie diet containing almonds was more effective in reducing weight compared to a diet having complex carbohydrates.
2.Lowers cholesterol and lipids: The high fat containing almonds might be the reason you’re not having them too much but here’s something you should know. Almonds do not contain saturated fats or unhealthy fats. They contain mono-unsaturated fatty acids or good fats. Almonds consistently help in lowering low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol or bad cholesterol.
3. Reduces risk of heart disease: Naturally, if your LDL levels reduce then your risk of heart disease also lowers. Patients with high lipid levels who had almonds as snacks had a significantly reduced risk of coronary heart disease. The nonfat (protein and fiber) and the high amount of monounsaturated fatty acids help protect the heart.
4. Has prebiotic properties: The high fibre content of almonds helps proper functioning of the digestive system. But did you know that almonds possess prebiotic properties? The skin of almonds contains certain compounds that stimulate the growth of good bacteria like Bifidobacterium in the intestine. It suggests that changes in the intestinal microbes were associated with changes enzymes that improved digestion.
5. Controls diabetes: If you’re a diabetic, you should eat almonds. They fight and decrease the amount of the free radicals that damage cholesterol and increase blood sugar level. It especially prevents the rise in blood sugar
after meals.
6. Stimulates hair growth: There’s a reason why almond hair oil is recommended for hair growth. Almonds contain omega- 6 fatty acids that promote hair growth. They naturally moisturize hair and make them strong and healthy.
7. Rejuvenates the skin: Because of their powerful antioxidant activity due to Vitamin E, almonds prevent early ageing and wrinkling of skin. It rejuvenates and moisturizes the skin cells, keeping it fresh and glowing.
8. Prevents gallstones: More and more people are now suffering from gallstones or problems with the gall bladder. But prevent disease the gall bladder could be as simple as eating a fistful of nuts, including almonds.
9. Keeps cancer away: Antioxidants have immense power to protect the cells from becoming cancerous. But apart from antioxidants like vitamin E, benefits of almonds are loaded with other nutrients that individually prevent specific types of cancer. The high fibre content in them helps prevent colon cancer. The rich folic acid stores in almonds may reduce the risk of cervical cancer. Scientists have even found a link between almonds and reduction in the risk of lung cancers.
10. Improves brain function: ‘Eat badam to sharpen your mind,’ an old adage used by your grandmother, actually has a scientific basis. Almonds contain nutrients like riboflavin and L-carnitine, which boosts neurological activity and brain power.  It also helps  reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Even Ayurveda mentions that almonds
increase intellectual level and longevity.

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