Throughout the history of India, there has been a continuous evolution and development of regionalism and regional states. In the development of regional states, from the seventh century onwards till the seventh and eighteen countries, agriculture and agricultural activities played a very important role.

It is an undeniable fact that a large number of regional states arose due to internal weaknesses of the Delhi Sultanate after thirteen century; similarly, there emerged some important state with the decline of Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century. However, all these regional states had regional history that pre-dated both the Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. For instance, Bengal was a significant regional kingdom in eighth and ninth centuries under Palas and subsequently in twelfth century under the Senas.

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A Few Case Studies regarding Regional States

Gujarat: Gujarat, a prosperous and fertile province, had flourishing seatports and was famous for its handicrafts. It was Alauddin Khalj who became the first Sultan to annex Gujarat to the Delhi Sultanate and since then it remained under the Turkish governors of the Sultanate.

One of the important rulers of Gujarat, Ahmad Shah, who ruled from 1411 till 1441, founded the city of Ahmadabad and made it his capital in 1413. He also built beautiful buildings like Jama Masjid and Teen Darwaza and beautified the city with gardens, palaces and bazaars. Although he was supposed to be an orthodox Muslim who imposed jaziya on Hindus and destroyed several temples, he appointed Hindus to important administrative positions. Ahmad Shah’s main enemy were the Muslim rulers of Malwa as is evident from the rivalry between Gujarat and Malwa that had become so bitter that it prevented both the regional States from focusing on larger political gains in north Indian politics.

It was Mahmud Begarha who was perhaps the most important ruler of Gujarat. He was known as Mahmud Begarha as he had captured two powerful garh (forts)- Girnar (Junagarh) in Saurashtra and the fort of Champangar from the Rajputs in South Gujarat.

According to another version, he was famous as Begarha as his moustaches resembled the horns of a cow (also called bagarha). According to a foreign traveler, Duarto Barbosa, Mahmud right from his childhood, was served some poison as his food which made him so poisonous that if a fly settled on his head, it would meet instant death. He was also a great patron of art and literature. During his reign, in his court many works were translated from Arabic to Persian. Udayaraja, a famous poet who composed poetry in Sanskrit, was a court poet of Begaraha’s court.

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Kashmir

In the eleventh century the rulers of Kashmir, the northern part of India, were followers of Saivism and Saivism became the central religion in Kashmir. The famous Arab traveler, Albureni, who visited India during this period has remarked in his work, Al-Hind, that no one, not even Hindus from the outside was allowed access to Kashmir. However, in 1339 Shamsuddin Shah deposed the Saiva ruler and became the ruler of Kashmir. From this period onwards, Islam influenced the Kashmiri Society. Rishis, a group of Sufi saints, propogated a religion that combined both features of both Hinduism and Islam. These Sufi saints and refugees migrated from Central Asia to Kashmir and further influenced the society and religion.

Zainul Abidin (1420-1470), one of the greatest rulers of Kashmir, was an enlightened ruler who called back those Hindus who had left the State due to the prosecution of Sikandar Shah. He not only abolished jaziya but also prohibited cow slaughter and gave important state posts to Hindus.

A large number of temples were repaired and scores of new ones were constructed during his reign. According to Abul Fazl, the court historian of the Mughal Empire Akbar, Kashmir had one hundred and fifty temples. Some scholars have compared him to Akbar by calling him the Akbar of Kashmir; he married the daughters of the Hindu raja of Jammu. He was also named the Bud Shah the great king Kashmir. Under him Kashmir became a prosperous State and registered its name along with those regional states who defied the power of the centre.

Sultan Zainul Abidin constructed dams and canals that contributed immensely to the development of agriculture. During his reign agricultural records were properly maintained and when State faced famine or other natural calamities, peasants were provided relief in terms of loans and grains and fodder.

With an aim to induct reforms in currency Sultan Zainul Abidin introduced market control and fixed prices of the commodities. Merchants and traders were directed to sell their commodities at fixed prices. Apart from importing salt from Ladakh to make up its shortage, he also subsitised the import of the commodities that were scarce; in this way he helped traders in every conceivable way and cemented Kashmir’s name in the group of powerful regional states.

Also a keen observer of the development of handcrafts the Sultan introduced carpet and shawl making which make Kashmir famous till day. Founder of the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur, Sultan also built islands on the Dal Laka that can be seen even today. The chief engineering achievement during the reign of Sultan Zainual Abidin was the Zaina Lanka, an artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which his palace and mosques were built.

That Sultan Zainul Abidin was a man of letters is evident from the fact that he was well versed in Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab Languages and used to patronize Sanskrit and Persian scholars. It was during his reign and under his patronage the Mahabharata and Kalhan’s Rajatarangani were translated into Persian and many works of Arabic literature were translated into Hindi. He used to write poetry, too, under the pen name ‘Qutb’. After his death Kashmir Gradually became weak, and was no longer the part of strong regional states, due to the paucity of able kings and was finally conquered by Akbar in 1586 and became a part of the Mughal Empire.

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Bengal

In the eighth century under the Palas and in the twelfth century under the Senas Bengal, was a significant regional kingdom among the powerful regional states. Geographically, it was the easternmost province of the Delhi Sultanate so it was difficult for the Delhi Sultanate to have a proper control over this province because of its long distance from the central power, uncomfortable climate and poor communications. All these factors made it easy for Bengal to assert its independence.

Haji Ilyas Khan, one of the nobles of Bengal, in 1342 united Bengal and became its ruler and acquired the title of Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah and founded the Ilyas Shah dynasty. Ghiyasuddin Azam, one of the important rulers of Bengal, was a learned man and was known for his execution of free and fair justice to people.

During his reign the port of Chittagaon was an important Centre for exchange of goods. Its evident from the records that the trade relationship between Bengal and China was prosperous; it is said that on demand from the king of China, Azam also sent Buddhist monks from Bengal. The capitals of Bengal were Pandua and Gaur.

Bengal was conquered by Akbar in 1586 and was made a suba. Although Bengali continued to develop as a regional language, Persian was the language of administration. With the setting up of Mughal control rose the agrarian settlements in the forested and marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal. The Mughals set-up their capital in centre of the eastern delta at Dhaka.

Another important ruler of Bengal was Alauddin Hussain Shah who was a very efficient ruler; he appointed Hindus on high administrative posts and paid respect to Chaitanya to Vaisnava sect. He had to make peace with Sikandar Lodi with whom he got into a conflict.

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Jaunpur

At present in the Varanasi division in eastern Uttar Pradesh falls Jaunpur on the banks of river Gomati. It was a prosperous province in the eastern part of the Delhi Sultanate. During the reign of Forez Shah Tughlaq, Malik Sarwar, a prominent noble, was the governor of Jaunpur. Taking advantage of a weak political situation, created by the Tmur’s invasion and the weakening of Delhi Sultanate, declared himself independent, showing the traits of powerful regional states.

He was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah Sharqi who stuck coins in his name. The Shariqi Sultans tried several times to capture Delhi but they could never be successful. Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, brother of Mubarak Shah, became the Sultan in 1402 and ruled Jaunpur for almost thirty tour years.

Ibrahim, well versed with Islamic theology and law, music and fine arts, was a scholar and a great patron of architecture also. A distinct style of architecture, during his reign, evolved that was called the Sharqi style that reflected some Hindu influence. At its pinnacle, the Sariqi Sultanate stretched from Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga in north Bihar in the east and from Nepal in the north to Bundelkhand in the south.

A prolonged war initiated between Bahlol Lodi and Hussain Shah Sharqi, and after the attack of Bahlol Lodi he had to flee. Finally it took Sikandar Lodi, the successor of Bahlol Lodi, to capture Jaunpur and with the death of Hussain Shah the Sharqi dynasty became a part of history.

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Renaissance: It is a name given to the Revival of Learning, which started in Italy in the early 14^th century and slowly spread throughout Europe in the late 15th century. It was a cultural movement that affected areas, such as art, literature, education and spread of science and technology.

The Glorious Revolution: A bloodless revolution in England in 1688-89, the Glorious Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the unpopular King James II and declaration of William of Orange (a Dutch) and his wife Mary, daughter of King James as joint sovereigns of England.

The American Revolution: It is the name given to the struggle by which England’s 13 colonies in North America declared their independence. The declaration of Independence was issued on July 4, 1776. Its author was Thomas Jefferson.

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The French Revolution: It is the name given to the struggle which swept away the Old Regime in France, as well as the fundamental changes which resulted from that struggle. The immediate cause of the French Revolution was the bankrupt condition of the French Treasury under Louis XV and Louis XVI. On July 14, 1789, the revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, the state prison for political prisoners that symbolised the king’s despotism. The fall of the Bastille marked the end of the monarchy. The King was beheaded on the guillotine in 1793 on charges of treason. A new constitution was adopted in 1795.

Industrial Revolution: It donates a series of changes in the economic conditions of England in the 18^th and 19^thcenturies brought about the invention of various kinds of machines that could be used for the industrial progress of the country, such as steam engine, spinning and weaving machines; the industrial revolution took place not only in England but also in other West European countries and the USA.

Russian Revolution: It was one of the most significant events of the 20^th century; main causes were: discontent towards the autocratic rule of Nicholas II, the new Czar; special privileges enjoyed by the upper class; and miserable conditions of the labourers and factory workers. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized powers in Petrograd (now Leningrad) on November 7,1917. Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. In 1923, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into being.

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The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: This revolution took place as a result of public discontent due to the policies of Matthias Rakosi, head of the Communist Party and the Hungarian government. The revolution witnessed large scale participation of students and workers. A new government under Janos Kadar came into being.

China’s Cultural Revolution: It occurred due to the conflict between the radicals and moderates in the Communist Party with Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party, supporting the radicals. The radicals accused the moderates of falling to follow communist principles.

Islamic Revolution in Iran: The revolution was a result of the hostility of old-fashioned religious leaders and public towards economic and social reforms introduced by Mohammad Reza Pahlevi, the last Shah of Iran. Shah’s policies led to fierce fighting and rioting which the government could not control. In February 1979, a revolutionary government took over under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini. Iran was proclaimed an Islamic Republic.

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Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel slavery that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries after it gained independence and before the end of the American Civil War. Slavery in the United States had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

Slavery begins in the America

The first slaves in the American colonies arrived on a Dutch ship in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. Over the next 200 years, around 600,000 more slaves were brought to the American colonies, most of them to work the tobacco and cotton fields.

Must Read: Brief History of United States of America

Where did the slaves come from?

Slaves were brought over from the continent of Africa. Most of them came from the west coast of Africa where the main ports for the slave trade existed. The conditions on the slave ships were terrible. Often slaves were “packed” tightly in the ship’s hold where they were chained up and unable to move. Many slaves died during the trip due to disease and starvation.

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Slave Codes

The colonies established laws regarding slaves called slave codes. Some of these laws detailed the punishment for slaves who tried to escape. Other slave codes made it illegal to teach a slave to read, to help a slave to hide, and to pay for a slave to work. Slaves were not allowed to have weapons, leave their owner’s plantation, or lift their hand against a white person.

Abolitionism

After the American Revolution, many northern states outlawed slavery. By 1840 most slaves who lived north of the Mason-Dixon Line were set free. Many people in the north felt that slavery should be illegal in all the United States. These people were called abolitionists because they wanted to “abolish” slavery.

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Slave States and Free States

The slavery in the United States became divided between slave states in the north and free states to the south. When new states were added, one of the major issues was whether the new state would legalize slavery or not. When Missouri wanted to become a state, many people were upset because it was a slave state. In order to even things out, Congress admitted Maine at the same time as a free state. This was part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

Underground Railroad

Slaves escaped from the South to the North by using the Underground Railroad. The Underground Railroad was a network of homes, people, and hideouts that helped slaves to make their way in secret to the North. Around 100,000 slaves were able to escape this way between 1810 and 1865.

Civil War

When Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the southern states were afraid that he would outlaw slavery. They seceded from the United States and made their own country called the Confederacy. This started the Civil War. Eventually, the North won the war and the southern states rejoined the Union.

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Emancipation Proclamation

During the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln gave the Emancipation Proclamation which declared that the slaves in the South were free. Although, this did not free all the slaves immediately, it set the precedence for all slaves to be set free.

The 13th Amendment

In 1865, the 13th Amendment outlawing slavery was added to the U.S. Constitution.

Interesting Facts about Slavery in the United States

• The international slave trade was outlawed by Britain in 1807 and the United States in 1808. However, slavery was still legal and slaves were smuggled into the country up until the end of the Civil War.
• According to the U.S. Constitution, slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person when the state’s population was counted to determine how many Congressmen represented the state.
• Some slaves were treated well by their owners, whiles others were treated horribly. They were sometimes beaten, whipped, branded, burned, and imprisoned.
• Children of slaves were owned by the slave owner. They were often sold to other owners and the parents had no say.
• There were free black people who lived in the South before the Civil War. Some of them even owned slaves.

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Evidences of cultural history of India goes back to thousands of years ago, India was home to the Indus Valley civilization, one of the world’s oldest civilizations. In the 300s and 200s BC, the Maurya Empire ruled the land. It became one of the largest empires in the world. Years later, the Golden Age of India would take place during the Gupta dynasty. Lasting from 319 to 554 AD, the Gupta dynasty produced new developments in science, great art, and advanced culture.

With the rise of Islam in the Arab nations, it began to spread into India. During the 10th and 11th centuries the Turks and the Afghans invaded India and ruled as the Delhi Sultanate. Years later the Mughal Empire would rise to power and rule the land for over 300 years.

In the 16th century, European explorers began to enter India. Britain eventually took control of India. In the early 1900s India began to fight for independence from Britain. Led by Mohandas Gandhi, non-violent protests were made against the British. After many years of struggling, India was granted independence from Britain in 1947.

The country was later divided up into India and Pakistan. Later East Pakistan became a third country, Bangladesh. India and Pakistan have had strained relations over the years including both countries testing nuclear weapons.

India does have significant problems including poverty, corruption, and overpopulation. However, the country has recently seen strong economic and technology development.

Also read: History of India – 5 Major Events in Indian History

History of India Before beginning of Common Era (BCE)

• 3000 – The Indus Valley civilization is established in Northern India and Pakistan.
• 2500 – Large cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro develop.
• 1700 – The Iron Age begins in India.
• 1500 – The Aryan peoples arrive from Central Asia. The Indus Valley Civilization collapses. The Vedic period begins. The oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism are written.
• 520 – Buddhism is founded by Siddharta Gautama.
• 326 – Alexander the Great arrives in Northern India.
• 322 – The Mauryan Empire is founded. (Important event in the History of India )
• 272 – Asoka the Great becomes emperor of Maurya. He expands the empire greatly.
• 265 – Asoka the Great converts to Buddhism. He implements many reforms in the government.
• 230 – The Satavahana Empire is established.

History of India after begining of Common Era (CE)

• 60 – The Kushan Empire gains control of Northern India. Southern India is controlled by the Satavahana Empire.
• 319 – The Gupta Empire takes control of much of India. The rule of the Gupta Empire is a time of peace and prosperity. Many advances are made in science and the arts during this time.
• 500 – The decimal numeral system is invented in India.
• 554 – The Gupta Empire begins to collapse.
• 712 – Islam arrives in Northern India with the Umayyad Caliphate.
• 1000 – The Ghaznavid Empire invades from the north.
• 1210 – The Delhi Sultanate is founded.
• 1221 – Genghis Khan leads the first invasion of the Mongols in India.
• 1398 – The Mongols, led by Timur, invade Northern India.
• 1498 – Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama arrives in India. He is the first European to reach India by sea. He establishes trade between Europe and India.
• 1527 – The Mughal Empire is established by Babur. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1556 – Akbar the Great becomes the Mughal Emperor. He will expand the empire to include much of the Indian Subcontinent. The arts and literature flourish during his reign.
• 1600- The British East India Company is granted a charter by Queen Elizabeth I to have exclusive rights to trade with India.
• 1653 – The Taj Mahal is completed in Agra. It is built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in honor of his of wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• 1757 – The East India Company defeats Bengal at the Battle of Plassey. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1772 – Warren Hastings is appointed the first Governor-General of Bengal.
• 1857 – The Indians rebel against the rule of the British East India Company.
• 1858 – The British Empire takes over the East India Company. The British Indian Empire is established.
• 1877 – Queen Victoria claims the title the Empress of India.
• 1885 – The Indian National Congress is formed in an effort to gain independence for India. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1911 – The capital city is moved from Calcutta to Delhi by the British government.
• 1920 – Mahatma Gandhi begins his campaign of non-violence against the British government. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1930 – Gandhi leads the Salt March against the British salt monopoly.
• 1942 – The Quit India Movement is launched by the Indian National Congress.
• 1947 – India becomes an independent nation. The Muslim state of Pakistan is established in the north. Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Prime Minister of India. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1948 – War breaks out between India and Pakistan over the border land of Kashmir.

Also read: Modern History of India

• 1948 – Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated.
• 1950 – India becomes a republic.
• 1966 – Indira Gandhi, the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, is elected prime minister.
• 1971 – India goes to war with Pakistan over the creation of the country of Bangladesh from East Pakistan.
• 1974 – India detonates its first nuclear weapon. (Important event in the History of India )
• 1984 – Indira Gandhi is assassinated.
• 1972 – India signs the Simla Agreement with Pakistan.
• 1996 – The Hindu nationalist party, the BJP, becomes the major political party for first time against Congress.
• 2000 – The population of India passes one billion people.
• 2002 – Tensions mount between India and Pakistan over Kashmir.
• 2004 – A large Indian Ocean earthquake causes a tsunami wave that hits India killing over 10,000 people.

Here is a detailed history of how Sri Lanka has been seen in the political scenario. Maithripala Sirisena has now won the presidential elections.

1956 – Solomon Bandaranaike was elected as the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. He made Sinhala the only official language. More than 100 Sri Lankan Tamils people were killed after the Tamil members of parliament protested.

1959 – On September 25, 1959, Solomon Bandaranaike was shot by Talduwe Somarama, a Buddhist monk. He succumbed to injuries the next day.

1960 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike becomes first woman Prime Minister in the world. She was sworn in on July 21, 1960, after her United National Party won the elections.

1965 – Opposition party wins the elections and it tries to reverse the nationalisation.

1970 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike re-elected and she brings back Sinhalese nationalism.

1977 – LTTE was formed.

1983 – ‘Black July’ riots erupt in Sri-Lanka; about 64,000 people were killed.

1987 – Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which was intended to end the civil war between Sri Lankan Tamil nationalists and LTTE, signed.

1988 – Nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) protests against the Sri Lanka-India agreement.

1990 – Second Eelam War breaks. East Province taken over by Sri Lankan Forces after heavy fighting. The LTTE continue to kill civilians in the Eastern province.

1991 – LTTE suicide bomber kills Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, in Tamil Nadu. He was instrumental in bringing the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord.

1993 – An LTTE suicide bomber kills Ranasinghe Premadasa, the third President of Sri Lanka during a May Day rally.

1994 – President Kumaratunga again initiates peace talks with LTTE.

1995 – The third Eelam war breaks out after a suicide squad attacked two naval vessels in Trincomalee killing 12 soldiers.

1999 – A female suicide bomber attacks a police station in Colombo targeting the head of the terrorism unit, Mohammad Nilabdeen.

2000 – The European Union criticises both the Tamil Tigers and security forces concerning the human rights situation in Sri Lanka.

2003 – The Sri Lankan government and the LTTE hold peace talks and agree on a ceasefire.

2005 – Rajapaksa elected for the first time.

2006 – The political killings, child soldiers, abductions, and clashes between the government and LTTE creates tension around the country.

The Trincomalee massacre of students happened in 2006. It was considered to be act of state terror. Vankalai massacre of four minority Sri Lankan Tamils. It was also considered to be act of state terror.

2007 – At least 28 people, which includes 14 cadres of the LTTE, die in clashes between the security forces and the Tamil Tigers in September.

2008 – Government blames LTTE after 12 civilians killed and 100 injured over a suicide bomb attack. Government launches massive offense ending the 2002 ceasefire agreement.

May 2009 – On May 18, 2009 Velupillai Prabakaran was killed by the Sri Lankan army. The war between the Tigers and the Sri Lankan military reaches its bitter end and the Tigers decide to silence their guns in the interest of Tamil citizens.

March 2009 – Vinayagamoorthy Muralidharan (Karuna), former deputy leader of the LTTE joins Rajapaksa’s cabinet.

2010 – Mahinda Rajapaksa re-elected. He promises to restore an independent National Human Rights Commission along with other commissions.

2011 – United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon was appointed to monitor the government’s implementation of Human Rights.

2012 – Rajapaksa government dismisses UN report which states that Sri Lanka intimidated UN members investigating abuses at the end of the civil war in 2009. UN blames itself for failure during Eelam war climax. The former Sri Lankan Army Chief, Sarath Fonseka freed after two and a half years. Sri Lanka was in the same state when it came to ensuring justice to the victims of numerous Human Rights violations.

Jan 2013 – Rajapaksa dismisses Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake after finding her guilty on three offences including financial irregularities.

Feb 2013 – On February 19, 2013 a series of photographs showed Velupillai Prabakaran’s 12- year son Balachandran hit by bullets by a British channel’s documentary. The incident created controversies against Sri Lanka’s armed forces conduct in their final stage of operation against the Tamil Tiger rebels. However Rajapaksa government denied shooting anyone.

Aug 2013 – The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay says Sri Lanka was showing signs of heading in an increasingly authoritarian direction.

Sept 2013 – Tamil National Alliance (TNA) wins election at the Northern provincial council.

Nov 2013 – Sri Lanka hosts the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) but political heads of India, Canada and Mauritius skips the meeting.

2014 – President Mahinda Rajapaksa doesn’t allow the UN to investigate the war crimes during the Tamil Tiger insurgency.

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