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Today in History – 11 March

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today in history 11 march

today in history 11 march

1399

While returning to his country, Timur Lung looted and destroyed Delhi and parts of North India including Hardwar, the Ganga pilgrimage town, and crossed Sindhu River.

1689

Sambhaji, Shivaji’s successor, who was captured at Sangameshwar, was assasinated in the prison of Aurangzeb by Mughal officer Muqurab Khan.

1784

Tipu Sultan and Britishers signed the treaty at Mangalore which is known as the Mangalore treaty.

1795

Battle at Kurdla India, Mahratten beat Mughals.

1824

US War Dept creates the Bureau of Indian Affair.

1881

Ashley Eden unveiled in Calcutta Town Hall the first statue of Indians Ram Nath Tagore and Dwarkanath Tagore.

1886

Anandibai Gopalrao Joshi became the first Indian lady doctor. She passed the MBBS degree from Philadelphia University of America.

1888

On this day in 1888, one of the worst blizzards in American history strikes the Northeast, killing more than 400 people and dumping as much as 55 inches of snow in some areas.

1948

SS Jal Usha, the first ocean-going steamer made in India, was launched from Visakhapatnam.

1963

First Railway Engine was produced by Chittaranjan Railway Factory.

1971

Indira Gandhi wins majority in Parliament.

1984

India’s first modern boas `Jalusha’ started from Vishakhapattanam.

1992

Dr. Anita B. Bose, daughter of Netaji, declines to accept the ‘Bharat Ratna’ conferred on her father.

Related Articles:

Today in History – 10 March

Today in History – 9 March

Today in History – 8 March

Today in History – 7 March

Physical features of India – physiographic units

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Syskool
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Name the physiographic units of India and briefly explain their formation.

I.Introduction: The Indian subcontinent is characterized by the diversified physical features. They exhibit striking contrasts in structure, altitude, climate etc.
II. Physiographic divisions: Physical features of India may be divided into four physiographic units.
They are
1. The Himalayas and their associated mountain range.
2. The Indo-Gangetic plains
3. The peninsular plateau.
4. The coastal plains.
1. Formation of the Himalayas: 
a. According to the Geologists, during Mesozoic times, the entire Himalayan area was occupied by a great Geosyncline called “Tethys sea”.
b. Angaraland was the land mass to the North of Tethys Sea. Gondwana land which contained the present peninsula was to the south of the Tethys Sea.
c. In the course of time, these two land masses split up and began to move apart.
d. Then the weaker Tethys Sea got compressed and buckled up.
e. After some million years due to immense compressional forces, the sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea were folded to acquire the present form of Himalayan Mountains.
2. Formation of Indo Gangetic plains: 
a. In the wake of the Himalayan uplift, a ‘fore deep’ was formed in the intervening space between the peninsular plateau and the Himalayan Mountains.
b. Then an immense amount of Alluvium was deposited in this depression by the Himalayan Rivers. Thus, it became the largest alluvial plain in the world.
3. Formation of peninsular Plateau: 
a. According to Geologists, it was a part of The Gondwana land.
b. It was a block of old crystal rocks lifted above the sea level in the pre-Cambrian times, and never submerged again.
4. Formation of coastal plains: Were formed by the peninsular rivers.
 Physical Features of India

What are the parallel ranges of the Himalayas? Explain.

I. Introduction: The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh with a distance of 2400 km and a width of 500 km.
II. Kinds of parallel ranges of Himalayas: The Himalayas comprise three parallel ranges with deep valleys and extensive plateaus. They are:
1. The Himadri (The greater the Himalayas)
2. The Himachal or lesser the Himalayas
3. The Siwaliks or outer the Himalayas
The Himadri or Greater Himalayas: 
a. This is the highest loftiest and most continuous range with an average elevation of about 6100 mts.
b. It has the world’s highest and prominent peaks such as Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga etc.
c. It is formidable and snow bound through out the year and found with a number of glaciers.
d. It is mainly composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
The Himachal range: 
a. This is a most intricate and rugged mountain system.
b. It is to the south of the Himadri range with an altitude of 1000- 4500 mts.
c. Its width varies between 50 and 80 kms.
d. The most important and longest range in the Himachal is the Pir Pan Jal range of Kashmir.
e. Kashmir valley lies between Himadri and Pirpanjal range.
f. It has beautiful Kulu and Kangra valleys.
g. Many hill stations like Simla, Mussoorie, Nainital etc are situated in this range.
The Siwalikhs: 
a. It is the southern most range of the Himalayas.
b. It extends from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
c. The Siwaliks in Jammu region are called Jammu hills and in Arunachal Pradesh as Mishi hills.
d. The width of this range varies between 50 km in Himachal Pradesh and 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
e. Its average height ranges from 600 to 1500 mts.
f. These are backed by The ‘Duns’ and are covered with thick tropical deciduous forests.

Describe the importance of Himalayas.

A. I. Introduction: The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh covering a distance of about 2400 km and with a width of 200 to 500 km.
II. Importance of the Himalayas:
Barriers: The Himalayas act like barriers protecting the great plains of India from the cold winds of central Asia during winter. They also acted as impenetrable borders protecting the country from foreign invasions
Cause rains: The Himalayas are responsible for causing rainfall in the plains during summer and ultimately to have a monsoon type of climate in the country.
The Perennial flow of water: Rivers originate in the glaciers of these mountains and cause the perennial flow of water. These lives contributed to the economic development of the Great Plains.
Scenic beauty: The Himalayas are known for beautiful valleys like Kashmir Kulu, Kangra etc and hill stations. These valleys and hill stations attract tourist from all over the world and earn foreign exchange for the country.
Horticulture: Himalayan valleys are known for the cultivation of fruits like Apples.
Vegetation: Alphine vegetation is an important contribution to the forest economy.
The gaps in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas called passes- like Khyber, Bolan, permitted a great exchange of culture and commerce with neighbouring countries.
III. Conclusion: Thus, there are many advantages of the Himalayas to India.

What is a pass? Give examples.

1. The gaps in the Himalayan mountain ranges which provide natural routes across them are called passes.
2. The important passes in the Himalayan mountain ranges are Khyber, Bolan, Karakoram, Nathula, and Bomidila etc.

What is ‘DUN’? Give examples from the Himalayan region.

1. The Siwalik Mountains are backed by a discontinued series of narrow longitudinal flat-bottomed strike valleys. These valleys are called as ‘Duns’
2. Dehra Dun and Patli Dun in Uttaranchal and Kotli Dun in Jammu are the examples of prominent “Dun Valleys”.

Name the important peaks of Himalayas. 

The Himadri range has world’s highest and prominent peaks. The Important peaks of The Himalayas are
1. Mt. Everest (8848 mts)
2. Kanchenjunga (8598 mts)
3. Makalu(8481 mts)
4. Dhaulagiri (8177 mts)
5. Manaslu (8156 mts)
6. Chooyu (8153 mts)
7. Nanga Prabhath ( 8126 mts)
8. Annapurna (8078 mts)

What is plain? Describe the surface differences recognized with the geomorphology of Great Plains. 

I. Introduction: The land surface is not the same everywhere. There are various land forms i.e. mountains, Plateaus, and plains.
II. Meaning of plain: The material eroded and transported by rivers is deposited at suitable places and thus, plains are formed. A fertile land with the level surface, gentle, slope and with heights far less than a plateau is called a plain.
III. Surface differences of Great plains: There are four important surface differences recognized with the Geomorphology of great plains. They are Babar, Terai, Bhanger, Khadar Babar: The Himalayan rives deposit gravel and unassorted sediments along the foot of the Siwaliks. This pebble-studded zone of porous beds is known as Babar. It forms a narrow belt, only 8 to 16 km width in the northern boundary of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Terai : Many small Himalayan rivers flow underground through Bhabar zone and reemerge on the surface creating 15-30 kms wide marshy tract called ‘Terai’
Bhangar : the older alluvium of the floodplain is called Bhangar’.
Khadar : The never alluvium of the floodplain is called ‘Khadar’. This zone is found with excessive dampness with a thick growth of forest and a variety of wildlife.

Also, Read: Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

Compare and contrast the geomorphologic features between Malwa plateau and Deccan Plateau.

A. Introduction: The peninsular plateau is one of the physiographic units of India. It is broadly divided into Malwa Plateau and Deccan Plateau. 

Malwa Plateau Deccan plateau
1. It is bounded by the Aravallis on the northwest and the vindhyas on the south. 1. It is bounded by the satpura range on thenorth, western ghats on the west and eastern
2. Its extensions are known as Bundalkhand and Bhaghalkh and uplands in Uttar

Pradesh and in as Chota Nagpur plateau in

Jharkand.

 2. Its extensions are Maharashtra Plateau onthe north and north west. Andhra plateau on

the south west and Karnataka plateau

on the south.
3. In its interior parts its surface isflat with isolated hillocks. 3. Its table land consists of horizontallyarranged lava sheets
4. No Deltas are found here 4. It has many deltas.
5. It occupies lesser area 5. It occupies larger area.
6. It is not much suitable for cropcultivation. 6. It is suitable for crop cultivation
7. It tilts towards the Gangetic plain. 7. It tilts towards the east.
8. It has less elevation than theDeccan plateau. 8. It has varied elevation from 900mts in the west to 300 mts on the east.

Distinguish the differences in physiography of Western ghats and Eastern ghats.

A. I. Introduction: Deccan plateau is bounded by the western ghats on the west and Eastern ghats on the east. East western ghats and Eastern ghats meet at Nilgiri hills. 

Western ghats Eastern ghats
1. They start from Khandesh in Maharastraand end at Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. 1. They start from the hills of ChotanagpurPlateau in Jharkhand and run upto Nilgiris

in Tamil Nadu.
2. They are to the western side of theDeccan Plateau. 2. They are to the eastern side of theDeccan Plateau.
3. They are continuous chain of hills runningin a north-south with some gaps like palghat,

Thal ghat and Bhorghat gaps.

 3. They are represented by irregularline of hills.
4. They are very close to the coast keepinga narrow coastal plain. 4. They are far away from the coast keepingbroad coastal plain.
5. They have structural unity and awell defined lay out. 5. They do not have any structural unityand a well defined lay out.
6. The northern part of western ghats is known as Sahyadri. Annamalai hills and cardamom hills arethe southern parts. 6. They have local names are called as Simahachalam in Visakhapatnam, Papi Kondalu in Wast Godavari etc. Nallamalai in Kurnool, Pachamalai and in Tamil Nadu.
7. Anaimudi in Kerala the highest peak. 7. The highest peak of Eastern ghats is found in chintapalli village of Vishakapatnam
8. There are dense forests. 8. Forest all not that dense as that to western ghats.

Compare the coastal plains of east and west.

East coastal plain West coastal plain
1. They stretch from Bengal to KanyaKumari. 1. They strech from Rann of Kutch tokanyakumari.
2. They are wider and flat. 2. They are narrow and uneven.
3. They are situated between TheEastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. 3. They are situated between the westernGhats and the Arabian sea.
4. Well watered deltas are found. 4. Long bars and lagoons are found.Deltas are not found.
5. Alluvial plains are formed by Mahanadi,Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery rivers. 5. Alluvial plains are formed by Narmada,Tapti, Sabarmati and Mahi rivers. These plains

are found to the north of west

coastal plains.
6. Irrigational facilities are well developed. 6. This region has less developedirrigational facilities.

Facts File:

The Himalayas are the young folded mountains.
The Himalayas were once occupied by the sea Tethys.
The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
The longitudinal extent of Himalayas is 5 lakh sq.km.
Greater Himalayas are also known as The Himadri.
K2 mountain peak is in Trans-Himalayan zone.
The highest mountain peak of The Himalayas in India is Kanchanjunga.
Pamir plateau is located in Trans-Himalayan zone.
The longitudinal extent of The great plains in India is 7 lakhs sq.km
The younger Alluvium is known as Khader.
Terai is a wide marshy track.
Bundelkhand upland is an extension of Malwa plateau.
Peninsular plateau is slightly tilting towards The east.
The highest peak in peninsular plateau is Annaimudi.
The Deccan plateau is bounded on north by sathpura range.
Narmada river flows through a rift valley.
Alakananda and Bhagirathi head streams formed the main stream of ganga.
The world’s highest and prominent peaks are found in Himadri range.
The most important Himachal range is Himachal.
South-west world extension of pirpanjal is called Dhaula Dhar range.
The world’s second highest peak is K2.
The longest glacier is Siachin.
The world’s highest table land is Pamir plateau.
Luni basin is found in Rajasthan plain.
Guru sikhar peak is situated in the Aravalli hills.
The important summer resort in M.P is pachmarhi.
The highest peak of the Nigiris is Doda betta.
The Ganga enters Bangladesh and then it is called Padma
The largest peninsular rivers Godavari.
Godavari joins Bay of Bengal near Rajamundary in A.P
A B
1. Manasarover2. older alluvium

3. Marshy tract

4. Pirpanjal range

5. West flowing river

 a. Brahmaputrab. Bhanger

c. Terai

d. Himachal

e. Tapti

Have a look at:

Indian River Systems

Plateau

Rivers World

Monsoon, Floods, and Droughts

Indian Endangered Animals

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Syskool
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endangered species

Apart from having an astonishing diversity of animal life from Ladakh in the Himalayas to Kanyakumari at the southern tip, India is also home to endangered animals belonging to the species such as lion tailed macaque, Bengal tiger, Asiatic elephant, lion, deer, Siberian crane, wild buffalo, wild ass, porcupine, the one horned rhinoceros and snow leopard. It is important to mention here that almost sixty percent of the total population of the wild tigers in the world resides in India.

Also Read: Wildlife Corridors – Elephant Lifeline(s) – of Coimbatore

Endangered tigers of India

That tigers in India belong to the group of endangered animals is quite evident from the fact that in 1939 there were about 30,000 tigers in India but nowadays there are only around 3000 left.

The tiger, the largest of the big cats, is a magnificent animal. They are found usually throughout India barring some desert regions. Tiger can be spotted even up to the height of 3,050 metres in Himalaya.

In today’s India the tiger, the national animal of India, is highly endangered. The major factor behind tigers falling into the group of endangered animals is the loss of forest habitat. The hunting areas of these majestic animals have been and are being turned into farms and village. Apart from this, because of large scale poaching also in many Asian countries for their valuable skins, tigers’ numbers have been reduced. Chinese used the body parts of tigers in medicine and exotic recipes. After being declared man-eaters or cattle-lifters tigers are killed leading to the decline in their population.

Must Read: Top 10 Tiger Reserves in India

Lion tailed Macaque

Highly endangered lion tailed macaque, belonging to the group of endangered animals, live in Silent Valley in Kerala, where the construction of a hydro electric project was proposed which could have spelt disaster for these rare and already endangered animals; however, luck prevailed and after a strong protests from conservationists, the proposal was canceled, and the lion tailed macaque’s hope for survival got a chance.

Endangered Cats and dogs

Among the list of endangered animals of India are its big, wild cats which include Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, the snow leopard, panther or leopard, the clouded leopard and many more. Among these, tigers can be spotted in many parts of India while the Asiatic lion is found only in the Gir forest. And it is only in the dense evergreen forests of Sikkim and North East Asia, one of the highly endangered animals, the clouded leopard, can be found, while in the Himalayan ranges at altitudes between 3,000 and 4,000 metres the snow leopard is found.

The loss of habitat has been cited as the reason behind the decline of the cat species in India, and along with this pressure of increasing human population on wildlife reserves is also a reason. In India, some species of dogs are also listed in the group endangered animals; for instance, the India Walf, a cousin of dog was once scattered all over India; however, its numbers declined rapidly because it is pitilessly and relentlessly hunted because of a wrong perception of the people that it carries away children.

The another cousin of the dog, the Indian fox, that also constitutes the group of endangered animals, is fast becoming scarce because it is hunted for its skin and flesh which fetch big money in the international market. The Indian wild dog has also been enlisted in the group of endangered animals because of the loss of habitat, diseases that it picks up from feral and domestic dogs and competitions from predators.

Also Read: Project Tiger – Government’s effort to protect tigers in India

Endangered bears of India

The sloth bear and the Himalayan brown bears fall into the group of endangered animals of India. The Himalayan bear, usually found in Central and North Eastern areas of the Himalayas, are commonly considered to be the most likely animal behind the legends of Yeti. They eat fruits, wild berries, insects and rats; and hibernate in caves or dens and are difficult to find because they are very rare and live in such areas that prove difficult to reach.

The sloth bear, with its characteristics ‘V’ shaped mark on its chest, has long shaggy black hair; it is found in the forests of Sri Lanka and India. Although it is enormous in size, it primarily eats termites. It almost never attacks and eats another animal because its usual diet includes insects, although it may eat flesh of a dead carcass if it happens to encounter one.

These bears are also rapidly vanishing and becoming rare because people in order to catch the younger ones kill the adult bears; they do so with the intention to import training to the younger ones. In some parts of India were, and still are, made to dance to entertain the people; and not only this they are sold in the market because some medicines and food are made from these beautiful and innocent creatures.

One of the most important reasons behind the reducing numbers of sloth bears is that people are engaged in cutting down trees in the forest with an intention to prepare lands for farming due to which these creatures of nature have become homeless, helpless. They are even killed for eating crops which they do to survive.

Must Read: Forest Ecosystem

Endangered India Rhinos

In the rain drenched regions of North East India the Indian rhinoceros is found. It is very unfortunate for these animals, who constitute the group of endangered animals of India, that their homeland is so fertile that it is beign transformed into farm land to grow rice and other crops.

Because of this development, rhinoceros did not have any choice but to eat the crops for its survival which mad the farmers very angry and in retaliation rhinos were slaughtered in large numbers.

Apart from these unfortunate happenings with rhinos, they are hunted and killed mercilessly by humans, greedy humans, who have come to know that the horns of rhinos are greatly prized for medicinal purposes. They are also hunted and killed for sport.

Endangered Indian Snakes

The Indian egg eating snakes, India rock python and the reticulated pythorn are the Indian snakes who constitute the group of endangered animal of Indian.

The rock python can be found in scrub jungles, mangroves and dense forests while the reticulated python, the largest of the snakes, is found in North Eastern India and the Nicobar Islands. The India egg eating snake is a rare species that survives by feeding on the ages of birds and reptiles. These snakes have made its their entry into the list of endangered animals because they are killed primarily for their beautiful skin and partly because of reduction in their habitat.

Don’t Miss: Biodiversity and Its Conservation

Election Commission of India (ECI)

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Syskool
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Election Commission of India

ECI – A Permanent Constitutional Body

The power of superintendence, direction and control of the whole process for conducting elections to Parliament and Legislature of every state and of offices of the President and Vice President has been vested in the Election Commission of India, a permanent Constitutional body, by the Constitution of India.

Since the Modern Indian nation state came into existence on 15th August 1947, free and fair elections have been held at regular intervals as per the norms of Constitution’s Electoral Laws and System

Election Commission of India was set up, following the principles of the Constitution, on 25th January 1950. In 2001, the Commission celebrated its Golden Jubilee. The Commission originally had only a Chief Election Commissioner. At present, it comprises a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The two additional commissioners were appointed for the first time on 16th October 1989, but they continued in the office for the very short term (from 16th October 1989 to 1st January 1990). It was on 1st October 1993, when two additional commissioners were appointed and since then the concept of multi – member Commission, with decision-making power by majority vote, has been in operation.

Also Read: Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)

Appointment, and tenure of Commissioners

The Chief election Commissioner and Election Commissions are appointed by the President of India. They have the tenure of six years or up to the age of 65 years whichever is earlier. They get salary and perk and enjoy same as available to Judges of the Supreme Court of India. The Chief Election Commissioner of can be removed from his Office only through the process of impeachment by the Parliament.

Execution of Business

For the execution of its business, the ECI holds regular meetings and also from time to time circulates papers. In the process of decision making, all Election Commissioners have equal say. The Commission, quite often, disputes some of its executive functions to its officers in its secretariat.

Election Commission of India – the setup

The Commission has a separate secretariat at New Delhi that consists of about 300 officials in a hierarchical setup. In the secretariat, the senior, not officers, two three Deputy Election Commissioners, and Director Generals, assist the commission. These officers are generally selected and appointed from the National Civil Services by the Commission and generally have a fixed tenure.

The work is organized in Divisions, Branches, and Sections; each of the last mentioned units is in charge of a section officer. The Chief functional divisions include Planning, Judicial, Systematic Voter’s Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP), and Media and Secretariat Co-ordination.

In order to conduct a countrywide general election, an enormous task force consisting of nearly five million polling personnel and civil police forces are needed. This huge election machinery remains on deputation to the Election Commission and is subject to its control, superintendence and discipline during the election period that may extend over a period of one and the half to two months.

Must Read: National Human Rights Commission

Budget & Expenditure of Election Commission of India

The Commission’s budget, an independent one, is finalized directly in consultation between the Commission and the Finance Ministry of the Central government. The Finance ministry generally accepts the suggestions of the Commissioner for its budgets. However, the main expenditure on actual conduct f elections is mirrored in the budgets of the concerned constituent units of the Union, States, and Union Territories. If elections are held only for the Parliament, the Union Government bears the entire budget while in the case of elections held only in a state the responsibility of bearing the incurred expenditure goes to the concerned State.

Election Commission of India & Executive Interference

The Election commission, in the execution of its functions, is free from executive interference. It is Election Commission of India that has been fully authorized to decide about the election schedules for conducting elections, whether general elections or by-elections. The Commission is also authorized to take the decision on the location of polling stations, assignment of voters to the polling stations, the location of counting centers, arrangements in and around polling stations and counting centers and all allied matters.

Election Commission of India & Political Parties

All political parties, fighting elections, are registered with the election Commission in accordance with the law. It is Commission’s duty to ensure inner party democracy in the functioning of the political parties by insisting upon them to hold their organizational elections at periodic intervals. On the basis of their poll performance at general elections, the Election Commission grants recognition’s to registered political parties at State and national levels following the criteria set by it.

Election Commission of India, in principle, has to ensure a level playing field for the political parties in the election contest. For this, the Election Commission of India issues a Model Code of Conduct, which all contesting parties have to follow. This Model code of Conduct has been evolved with the consensus of political parties.

Don’t Miss: 

2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (SARC)

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Supreme Court on the Uttrakhand’s Constitutional Crisis

Schedules of Indian Constitution

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Syskool
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12 schedules indian constitution


There are 12 Schedules in The Indian Constitution.

First Schedule

deals with territories of 28 states and seven union territories of the Indian Union.

Second Schedule

deals with salaries, allowances etc. of President, Vice President, Speaker, Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts, Comptroller and Auditor General etc.

Third Schedule

of constitution prescribes the various forms of oath or affirmation which various incumbents have to take before assuming a public office.

Fourth Schedule

deals with seats allotted to various states and union territories in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

Fifth Schedule

deals with the provision regarding administration and control of the scheduled areas.

Sixth Schedule

deals with the provision regarding administration of tribal areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, and Mizoram.

Read Also: Legislative Relation Between Centre and State in India

Seventh Schedule

details the subjects contained in the three lists – union list, state list, and concurrent list, over which the Union and state governments enjoy authority.

Eighth Schedule

gives the list of 22 regional languages recognized by the original Constitution (Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu) the 15th (Sindhi) was added by the 21st Amendment in 1967; and three viz Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment in 1992. In 2004 four more languages were added to the Eighth Schedule viz Bodo, Maithili, Santhali, and Dogri. With this total number of regional languages increased to 22.

Ninth Schedule

covers land and tenure reforms; the accession of Sikkim with India. It may be reviewed by the courts

Tenth Schedule

introduces the “Anti-defection” provisions for Members of Parliament and Members of the State Legislatures.

Eleventh Schedule

constituted for Panchayats, for rural development.

Twelfth Schedule

defines Powers, authority, and responsibilities of Municipalities.

Must Read:

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