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Acquisition, Rights and Termination of Citizenship

By
Syskool
-
0

Mode of acquisition of citizen after January 26, 1950

  • Public Authorities: MPs and MLAs should be declared Public Authorities under the Right to Information Act, except when they are discharging legislative functions.
  • Immunity enjoyed by Legislators: Suitable amendments should be effected to article 105(2) of the Constitution to provide that the immunity enjoyed by MPs does not cover corrupt acts committed by them in connection with their duties in the House.
  • Similar amendments should be made in Article 194(2) of the Constitution in respect of members of the State Legislatures.
  • Ethical Norms in Legislature: An office of Ethics commissioner should be constituted by each House of Parliament, under the Speaker/Chairman to assist the Committee on Ethics.
  • All State Legislatures may adopt a code of ethics and a code of conduct for their members.
  • Constitutional Protection to Civil Servants: Article 310 and 311 should be done away with. These two Articles not only guarantee Constitutional protection to civil servants but also make it mandatory to seek prior sanction before prosecuting them.
  • Prior sanction should not be necessary for prosecuting a public servant who has been trapped red-handed or in cases of possessing assets disproportionate to the known sources of income.
  • Protection to whistle blowers: Whistleblowers ex-posing false claims, fraud or corruption should be protected by ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, protection from victimization in career and other administrative measures to prevent bodily harm and harassment.
  • Serious Economic Offences: Second ARC has suggested a new law to tackle serious economic offences involving Rs. 10 crore or more.
  • A serious frauds office should be set up in Cabinet Secretariat with power to investigate and prosecute in order to discipline financial sector, capital, futures and commodity markets and IT sector.
  • False Claim Law: The Second ARC has suggested a law on the lines of American False Claim Act, so that a citizen can seek legal relief against fraudulent claims against the government.
  1. Citizenship by birth: Every person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by birth.
  2. Citizenship by descent: A person born outside India on or after January 26, 1050, shall be a citizen of India by descent if either of his parents is a citizen of India at the time of the person’s birth.
  3. Citizenship by registration: A person can acquire Indian citizenship by registering themselves before the prescribed authority, e.g. persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident in India and have been so resident for five years immediately before making the application for registration; persons who are married to citizens of India.
  4. Citizenship by naturalization:  A foreigner can acquire Indian citizenship, on application for naturalisation to the Government of India.
  5. Citizenship by Incorporation of territory: If any new territory become s part of India, the Government of India shall specify the persons of that territory who shall be the citizens of India.

Evaluation

  • Recommending is the easier part of reform, now the challenge is to show political will for implementation.
  • Some recommendations can be implemented immediately. However, some require debate and consultation and amendments to the Constitution. Building a national consensus or a consensus among political parties may be difficult or time consuming.
  • This is the Commission’s fourth report. An official decision has yet to be taken on the last three.
  • The Department of Administrative Reforms has sent the earlier three reports to the concerned ministries for comments. The fourth will go through the same procedure. The final decision may take time.
  • Prime Minister is kept out of the purview of Rashtriya Lokayukta. PM does not take all the decisions individually. If a personality like Super PM, hidden be-hind PM exists, then he/she and the PMO officials are saved by the report.
  • However, keeping the PM outside the purview of Rashtriya Lokayukta is politically correct as it reduces the risk of political uncertainty.
  • The setting up of an NJC may annoy judiciary, as it (the judiciary) may not be impressed by a suggestion of outsiders being asked to sit in judgement on their conduct. The government is already struggling to pass the Judges (Inquiry) Bill, which judiciary has not taken easily.
  • However, the peculiar practice of the judiciary playing a singularly important role in appointing Judges is against the democratic principle. There are three organs of government and the principle of checks and balance should be followed. So, the suggestion for NJC is a welcome step.
  • Also, a collegium of representatives from all the branches of the government should not be considered outsiders. In an era of judicial activism, judiciary is taking many decisions in the administrative, executive and legislative spheres. Judiciary, in turn, should not have a problem with democratic and trans-parent appointments and removals of judges, which is in the national interest.

Rights given to the Indian citizens by the Indian Constitution

  1. Some of the fundamental rights enumerated In Part-III of the Constitution, for example Article 15, 16, 29, 30.
  2. Only citizens are eligible for certain offices such as offices of President, Vice-President, Judge of Supreme Court or High Court, Attorney General, Governor of a State.
  3. Right of suffrage, the right to become a Member of Parliament and of the legislature of a State.

TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP

  • Renunciation by Voluntary Act.
  • After acquiring the citizenship of another country.
  • Deprivation of citizenship by an order of the Government of India.
The Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Act, 2006 already exists in Jammu and Kashmir that provides for seizure and forfeiture of properties of a public servant, which has been acquired by illegal means. The Commission also took note of it. A similar law for the whole nation is not only possible, its urgently needed.
Finally, the recommendations are not outrageous. If implemented, they would help development of an honest polity, an accountable judiciary and a clean and transparent executive

Bell Test Experiments: Probing the Foundations of Quantum Mechanics

By
Kumar Prafull
-
0

Table of Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) Paradox
  3. Local Realism and Hidden Variable Theories
  4. Bell’s Theorem: No Local Hidden Variables
  5. Bell Inequalities: CHSH and Others
  6. Quantum Predictions vs Classical Bounds
  7. Experimental Requirements for a Bell Test
  8. Entangled States Used in Bell Tests
  9. The CHSH Inequality in Practice
  10. Space-like Separation and Locality Loophole
  11. Detection Loophole and Fair Sampling Assumption
  12. Freedom-of-Choice Loophole
  13. Early Bell Test Experiments
  14. Photon-Based Bell Tests
  15. Bell Tests with Atoms and Ions
  16. Loophole-Free Bell Tests
  17. Implications for Quantum Nonlocality
  18. Role in Quantum Cryptography
  19. Limitations and Philosophical Impact
  20. Conclusion

1. Introduction

Bell test experiments investigate one of the deepest questions in physics: can the world be described by local hidden variable theories, or must we accept the nonlocality of quantum mechanics? They provide empirical tests of Bell’s inequalities.

2. The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) Paradox

In 1935, EPR argued that quantum mechanics was incomplete and posited hidden variables to restore determinism and locality. They introduced entangled states as a challenge to the completeness of quantum theory.

3. Local Realism and Hidden Variable Theories

Local realism assumes:

  • Locality: Information cannot travel faster than light.
  • Realism: Physical properties exist independently of measurement.
    Hidden variable theories attempted to reconcile quantum predictions with these classical ideas.

4. Bell’s Theorem: No Local Hidden Variables

John Bell showed in 1964 that any local hidden variable theory must satisfy certain inequalities (Bell inequalities) which are violated by quantum mechanics. Therefore, no local hidden variable theory can reproduce all quantum predictions.

5. Bell Inequalities: CHSH and Others

The most commonly tested is the CHSH inequality:
\[
|S| = |E(a, b) + E(a, b’) + E(a’, b) – E(a’, b’)| \leq 2
\]
Quantum mechanics predicts violations up to \( |S| = 2\sqrt{2} \).

6. Quantum Predictions vs Classical Bounds

In quantum mechanics, entangled particles exhibit correlations stronger than classically allowed. Measuring violation of Bell inequalities confirms quantum nonlocality.

7. Experimental Requirements for a Bell Test

  • Source of entangled particles
  • Choice of measurement settings for each particle
  • Rapid switching and randomization of settings
  • High-efficiency, space-like separated detection

8. Entangled States Used in Bell Tests

Typical states include:

  • Bell states (e.g., singlet \( |\psi^-
    angle \))
  • Polarization-entangled photon pairs
  • Spin-entangled electrons or ions

9. The CHSH Inequality in Practice

CHSH experiments involve:

  • Measuring correlations at different angles (for photons, polarization filters)
  • Computing the correlation function \( E(a, b) \)
  • Calculating the Bell parameter \( S \)

10. Space-like Separation and Locality Loophole

To ensure that one measurement cannot influence the other, events must be space-like separated. Fast electronics and precise timing ensure no causal connection.

11. Detection Loophole and Fair Sampling Assumption

If not all particles are detected, the subset might not represent the whole, leading to false violations. High-efficiency detectors are required to close this loophole.

12. Freedom-of-Choice Loophole

Assumes that measurement settings are chosen independently of hidden variables. Requires fast and random setting choices using independent random number generators or cosmic photons.

13. Early Bell Test Experiments

  • Clauser and Freedman (1972): First violation of Bell’s inequality
  • Aspect (1980s): Improved timing and switching, but not loophole-free

14. Photon-Based Bell Tests

Use entangled photon pairs from:

  • Parametric down-conversion
  • Quantum dots
  • Atomic cascade decays
    Photons are easy to transmit but require high-efficiency detectors.

15. Bell Tests with Atoms and Ions

Trapped ions and atoms provide better detection efficiency and long coherence times but are harder to separate spatially. Notable experiments use:

  • Entangled ions (Blatt group)
  • NV centers in diamond

16. Loophole-Free Bell Tests

Achieved in 2015 by multiple groups:

  • Delft (Hanson et al.): entangled electron spins in diamonds
  • NIST and Vienna: photon-based with high detection efficiency
    These closed both detection and locality loopholes.

17. Implications for Quantum Nonlocality

Bell violations imply:

  • Nonlocal correlations (without faster-than-light signaling)
  • Rejection of local realism
  • Validity of quantum entanglement as a physical resource

18. Role in Quantum Cryptography

Bell tests are central to:

  • Device-independent quantum key distribution (DIQKD)
  • Certification of randomness and entanglement
  • Trust-free quantum protocols

19. Limitations and Philosophical Impact

Bell tests do not imply faster-than-light communication but challenge classical intuitions. Interpretational debates continue (Copenhagen, many-worlds, relational QM).

20. Conclusion

Bell test experiments validate the predictions of quantum mechanics and rule out entire classes of hidden variable theories. They remain fundamental to understanding quantum nonlocality and underpin many quantum information applications.

.

Overseas Citizens of India (OCI)

By
Syskool
-
2

Citizenship Amendment Act, 2005

 

  • The Citizenship Amendment Act, 2005 was passed by the Parliament to make provisions for dual citizenship by amending the Citizenship Act, 1955.
  • The Citizenship Amendment Act, 2005, is to bestow eligibility for registration as Overseas Citizens of India (OCI) on persons of Indian origin, who or whose parents/grandparents have migrated from India after January 26, 1950 or were eligible to become an Indian Citizen on January 26, 1950 or belonged to a territory that became part of India after August 15, 1947, and their minor child, who is a national of a country that allows dual citizenship in some form or other.
  • The eligibility provision is being extended to such citizens of all countries other than those who had ever been a citizen of Pakistan and Bangladesh.

 

Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI)

The Government of India had appointed a High level Committee on Indian Diaspora under the Chairmanship of L.M. Singhvi which recommended in its report to grant overseas Indian citizenship to the people of Indian origin. Based on its recommendations, the Government of India made provisions for overseas citizenship of India (OCI) commonly known as dual citizenship to the people of Indian origin by amending the Part-II of the Indian Constitution, since the Constitution of India does not allow holding Indian Citizenship and Citizenship of Foreign country simultaneously.

Eligibility for OCI

 

  • Any person who at any time held an Indian Passport, or either he or one of his parents or grandparents was born in or was a permanent resident in India as defined in the Government of India Act, 1935 and other territories that became part of India thereafter provided he was at any time a citizen of Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka or who is a spouse of a citizen of India or a person of Indian
  • A foreign national, who was eligible to become citizen of India on 26.01.1950 or was a citizen of India on or at anytime after 26.01.1950 or belonged to a territory that became part of India after 16.08.1947 and his/her children and grandchildren, provided his/her country of citizenship allows dual citizenship in some form or other under the local laws, is eligible for registration as Overseas Citizen of India (OCI).
    1. Minor children of such a person are also eligible for OCI.
    2. If the applicant had ever been a citizen of Pakistan or Bangladesh, he/she will not be eligible for OCI.

 

Procedure of acquiring OCI

 

  • Eligible persons have to apply in the prescribed form along with enclosure form online.
  • Applicant can apply to the Indian Mission/Post in the country where applicant is ordinarily residing.
  • If applicant is in India on long term visa then to FRRO, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Amritsar, Chennai or to the Joint Secretary (Foreigners) MHA.
  • Fee for getting OCI is Rs. 15,000 or equivalent in local currency for adults and for children upto 18 years is Rs. 7,500 or equivalent in local currency

 

Benefits to OCI holders

 

  1. A multi-entry, Multi-purpose life-long visa for visiting India.
  2. Exemption from the requirements of registration if they stay on any single visit in India which does not exceed 180 days.
  3. Parity with NRIs in respect of all facilities available to the latter in the economic, financial and educational fields except in matters relating to the acquisition of agricultural/plantation properties. No parity shall be allowed in the sphere of political rights.
  4. A person registered as OCI is eligible to apply for grant of Indian Citizenship under Section 5(l)(g) of the Citizenship Act, 1955. If he/she is registered as OCI for five years and has been residing in India for one year out of the five years making the application.
  5. OCI is not entitled to vote, be a member of Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council or Parliament and cannot hold constitutional posts such as President, Vice-President, Judge of the Supreme Court or High Courts and can not also normally hold employment in the Government.

Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen

By
Syskool
-
3
Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen
Originally, the Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen were not provided in the Constitution. On the basis of the recommendations of Swarn Singh Committee, these duties were included in the Constitution under Article 51A of part IV by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976. Under these provisions, a citizen of India is expected to faithfully observe the following Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen.
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
  1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideas and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;
  2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
  3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
  4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
  5. To promote harmony and spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India, transcending religious, linguistic, regional or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
  6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
  7. To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, river, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
  8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism, and spirit of inquiry and reform;
  9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
  10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activities so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement;
  11. To provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between age of 6 and  14 years;
The 11th point was adopted by 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.

The Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen are inspired by the constitution of former Soviet Union. Since the Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen are included in part IV of the constitution, these can not come into force automatically, neither can these duties be enforced by judicial process. The constitution, like directive principles of state policies, leaves to the goodwill of citizen to abide these provisions. According to the famous constitutional expert D D Basu, the constitution does not make any provision to enforce these duties automatically or any sanction to prevent the violation of these duties by the citizen. However, it is expected that if a law is enacted by the legislature to enforce these provisions, its shall not be declared unconstitutional on the ground of its inconsistency with the provisions of Article 14 and that of 19. According to him, these provisions would act as a warning to all those who does indulge in not paying due regard to the constitution and destroying public property. The supreme court may issue such warning to the citizen to take these provisions seriously. The legislature may also enact laws to enforce these duties. In fact, there are already many laws which directly or indirectly enforce these duties. For example, there is a law for the protection of public property as well as environment and animal species.

However, the Supreme Court, in the Surya Vs Union of India (1992) case, ruled that Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizen are not enforceable through judicial remedies by the court. In Vijoy Immanuel Vs State of Kerala (1987), the Supreme Court overruled the decision of Kerala High Court and decided that though to Constitution provides it to be the duty of the citizen to respect the National Anthem, it does not provide that singing of the National Anthem is part of such respect. Even a person, while standing during the singing of National Anthem (without himself singing it) can show respect to the National Anthem.
Must Read:

Quantum Process Tomography: Characterizing Quantum Operations

By
Kumar Prafull
-
0

Table of Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. What Is Quantum Process Tomography (QPT)?
  3. Motivation and Applications
  4. Quantum Operations and Quantum Channels
  5. Kraus Representation and Superoperators
  6. The Choi–Jamiołkowski Isomorphism
  7. Process Matrix (Chi Matrix) Representation
  8. Steps in Quantum Process Tomography
  9. Choosing Input States
  10. Performing Output State Tomography
  11. Reconstructing the Process Matrix
  12. Physical Constraints on the Process Matrix
  13. Maximum Likelihood Estimation in QPT
  14. Gate Set Tomography (GST)
  15. Compressed and Scalable QPT
  16. Ancilla-Assisted Process Tomography
  17. Experimental Implementations
  18. Common Errors and Mitigation Techniques
  19. QPT vs Quantum State Tomography
  20. Conclusion

1. Introduction

Quantum Process Tomography (QPT) is a method used to reconstruct and fully characterize the dynamics of a quantum operation or channel. It reveals how an input quantum state is transformed under a physical process.

2. What Is Quantum Process Tomography (QPT)?

QPT determines the complete description of a quantum process \( \mathcal{E} \) by measuring how it acts on a set of known input states. This allows benchmarking, verification, and error analysis of quantum gates and devices.

3. Motivation and Applications

  • Characterize and verify quantum gates
  • Benchmark quantum processors
  • Detect and diagnose decoherence
  • Validate quantum control schemes

4. Quantum Operations and Quantum Channels

A quantum process is mathematically described as a completely positive, trace-preserving (CPTP) map:

\[
ho \mapsto \mathcal{E}(
ho)
\]

It can be represented using operator-sum (Kraus), superoperator, or process matrix formulations.

5. Kraus Representation and Superoperators

Any quantum process can be expressed as:

\[
\mathcal{E}(
ho) = \sum_k E_k
ho E_k^\dagger
\]

where \( \{E_k\} \) are Kraus operators satisfying \( \sum_k E_k^\dagger E_k = I \).

6. The Choi–Jamiołkowski Isomorphism

This maps processes to density matrices via:

\[
\chi_{\mathcal{E}} = (\mathcal{E} \otimes \mathbb{I})(|\Phi^+
angle\langle\Phi^+|)
\]

This state \( \chi \) encodes all the information about \( \mathcal{E} \) and can be experimentally reconstructed.

7. Process Matrix (Chi Matrix) Representation

The process can also be written as:

\[
\mathcal{E}(
ho) = \sum_{m,n} \chi_{mn} E_m
ho E_n^\dagger
\]

where \( \{E_m\} \) are a fixed operator basis (e.g., Pauli operators) and \( \chi \) is the process matrix to be estimated.

8. Steps in Quantum Process Tomography

  1. Prepare a complete set of input states \( \{
    ho_j\} \)
  2. Apply the quantum process \( \mathcal{E} \)
  3. Perform quantum state tomography on each output \( \mathcal{E}(
    ho_j) \)
  4. Reconstruct the process matrix \( \chi \)

9. Choosing Input States

For a single qubit, a common set includes:

\( |0 angle \), \( |1 angle \), \( |+ angle = rac{|0 angle + |1 angle}{\sqrt{2}} \), and \( |+i angle = rac{|0 angle + i|1 angle}{\sqrt{2}} \)

10. Performing Output State Tomography

Each output state is reconstructed using standard quantum state tomography techniques, measuring observables such as \( \sigma_x, \sigma_y, \sigma_z \).

11. Reconstructing the Process Matrix

Using the known transformation from each input state to output state, solve a linear system or perform maximum likelihood estimation to obtain the best-fit process matrix \( \chi \).

12. Physical Constraints on the Process Matrix

The reconstructed \( \chi \) must be:

  • Hermitian
  • Positive semidefinite (\( \chi \geq 0 \))
  • Trace-preserving: \( \sum_{m,n} \chi_{mn} E_n^\dagger E_m = I \)

13. Maximum Likelihood Estimation in QPT

MLE improves physicality and robustness:

  • Iteratively maximizes the likelihood of measured data
  • Ensures physical \( \chi \)
  • Avoids unphysical artifacts from noise

14. Gate Set Tomography (GST)

An advanced technique that:

  • Characterizes the full gate set (preparation, gates, measurement)
  • Eliminates SPAM (state-prep and measurement) errors
  • Uses self-consistency instead of external calibration

15. Compressed and Scalable QPT

Methods to handle large systems:

  • Compressed sensing: assumes sparsity
  • Randomized benchmarking (RB): yields average fidelity
  • Neural-network-based estimators

16. Ancilla-Assisted Process Tomography

Uses entangled ancilla states (e.g., Bell states) to directly probe the Choi matrix. Requires fewer resources and can access coherences more efficiently.

17. Experimental Implementations

QPT has been implemented in:

  • Superconducting qubits
  • Trapped ions
  • NV centers
  • Photonic systems
    Readout fidelities and calibration affect reconstruction accuracy.

18. Common Errors and Mitigation Techniques

  • SPAM errors: mitigated by GST or error correction
  • Shot noise: reduced by averaging
  • Drift and instability: require real-time calibration

19. QPT vs Quantum State Tomography

FeatureQSTQPT
ReconstructsDensity matrix \( ho \)Process map \( \mathcal{E} \)
Inputs neededSingle stateMultiple known states
Output2ⁿ × 2ⁿ matrix4ⁿ × 4ⁿ matrix

20. Conclusion

Quantum Process Tomography is vital for verifying and understanding quantum operations. While it scales poorly with system size, it remains an indispensable tool in quantum hardware development, often used alongside scalable alternatives like RB and GST.

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