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Art and Literature of Middle Ages

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Art during the Middle Ages was different based on the location in Europe as well as the period of time. However, in general, Middle Age art can be divided up into three main periods and styles: Byzantine Art, Romanesque Art, and Gothic Art. Much of the art in Europe during the Middle Ages was religious art with Catholic subjects and themes. The different types of art included painting, sculpture, metal work, engraving, stained glass windows, and manuscripts.

The end of the Middle Ages is often signaled by a great change in art with the start of the Renaissance Period.

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Byzantine Art

The start of the Middle Ages is often called the Dark Ages. This is the period of time from 500 to 1000 AD. The main form of art during that time was Byzantine art produced by artists from the Eastern Roman Empire, also called Byzantium.

Byzantine art was characterized by its lack of realism. The artists did not try to make their paintings realistic but focused on the symbolism of their art. Paintings were flat with no shadows and the subjects were generally very serious and somber. The subjects of the paintings were almost entirely religious with many paintings being of Christ and the Virgin Mary.

Romanesque Art

The period of Romanesque Art started around 1000 AD and lasted to around 1300 with the beginning of the Gothic Art period. Art prior to that is called pre-Romanesque. Romanesque art was influenced by both the Romans and Byzantine Art. Its focus was on religion and Christianity. It included architectural details like stained glass art, large murals on walls and domed ceilings, and carvings on buildings and columns. It also included illuminated manuscript art and sculpture.

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Gothic Art

Gothic art grew out of Romanesque art. Gothic artists began to use brighter colors, dimensions and perspective and moved toward more realism. They also began to use more shadows and light in their art and tried out new subject matters beyond just religion including animals in mythic scenes.

Artists of the Middle Ages

Many of the artists from the early Middle Ages are unknown to us. Some of the most famous lived during the latter part of the Middle Ages and are often considered to be part of the beginning of the Renaissance. Here are a few artists that made a name for themselves at the end of the Middle Ages:

  • Donatello – An Italian sculpture known for his statues of David, Mary Magdalene, and the Madonna.
  • Giotto – Italian artist from the 13th century famous for his frescos in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy.
  • Benvenuto di Giuseppe – Also called Cimabue, this Italian artist from Florence was known for his paintings and mosaics.
  • Ambrogio Lorenzetti – An Italian painter of the Gothic movement, he is famous for his frescoes, the Allegory of Good Government and the Allegory of Bad Government.

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Literature

The majority of the literature produced during the Middle Ages was written by religious clerics and monks. Few other people knew how to read and write. Much of what they wrote was hymns, or songs, about God. Some also wrote philosophical documents about religion. One of the most popular books of the Middle Ages was the Golden Legend, by an archbishop of Genoa Jacobus de Voragine. It told stories about the lives of the Saints during Medieval times. Some secular, meaning non-religious, books were written as well.

Here a few of the more famous literary works from the Middle Ages:

  • Beowulf – Unknown author. This Epic poem was written in England but tells the story of the hero Beowulf in Scandinavia.
  • The Canterbury Tales – by Geoffrey Chaucer. A series of tales that portray Chaucer’s view of English society at the time.
  • Caedmon’s Hymn – This hymn, recorded by a monk, is the oldest surviving Old English poem.
  • The Divine Comedy – by Dante Alighieri. Often considered one of the greatest works in world literature, this story describes Dante’s view of the afterlife.
  • The Book of Margery Kempe – by Margery Kempe. This book is considered to be the first autobiography written in English.
  • The Ecclesiastical History of the English People – by Venerable Bede. This history of the English church earned Bede the title “Father of English History”.
  • The Decameron – by Giovanni Boccaccio. This book has a number of stories and describes life in 14th century Italy.
  • The Travels of Marco Polo – by Marco Polo. This book tells the story of how Marco Polo traveled to the far east and China.
  • Le Morte d’Arthur – by Sir Thomas Malory. This book tells the story of legendary King Arthur.
  • Piers Plowman – by William Langland. This allegorical poem tells of a man in search of the true Christian life.

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India and South-East Asia in the Ancient World

Literature of Ancient India: Sanskrit Drama

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The origin of Sanskrit drama is in obscurity; there appears a wide gap between its early beginnings in the Rig Veda’s hymns and the actual plays (second to fourth century AD).

However, in the Mahabhashya of Patanjali (second century BC) the earliest reference to drama can be found. Mahabhashya speaks of representations of the Kansabadha (death of Kansa) and the Bali-bandha (capture of Bali). The earliest and the most authoritative treatise on Sanskrit dramaturgy is the Natyasatra of Bharata. Its date, however uncertain, could be anywhere between the second century BC and the third century AD.

Asvaghosa, the famous Buddhist poet and a contemporary of Kanishka (second century AD), is credited with the authorship of three Buddhist dramas of which one, Sariputra Prakarna, was undoubtedly written by him. The subject matter of Sariputra Prakarna refers to the conversion of the Maudgayana and Sariputra by the Buddha. This drama had followed all the rules that had been laid down in the Natyasastra for the composition of a Prakarna (prolog).

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Bhasa, the author of the Svapnavasavadatta and many other dramas, is considered to be later than Avaghosha. The dramas, most of them are one-act plays, are based on the epics. Two of the dramas derive their theme from the Ramayana and some including the famous Pratijna- Yaugandharayana and Svapnavasavadatta and the non-existent Charudatta – are based on the current literature. The first two are complementary. The latter picks up the story of king Udayana of Ujjayani. It is, as written in Bhasa’s style, simple and direct though the construction of plot is rough because it incorporates magic that gives it an air of unreality.

Another interesting drama Mrichchakatika (clay-cart) was probably, its date is uncertain, written by Sudraka. The drama deals with the love of a rich courtesan Vasantasena and a Brahman merchant Charudatta; the drama concludes with their coming together. The quick dramatic appeal and the variety of incidents make the play fairly interesting.

Great Dramatists

Between AD 400 and 800 nearly a dozen Sanskrit dramas were written by great dramatists like Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, and others. Some of these dramatists most probably dedicated their works to their patrons like Sudraka and Harsha.

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Famous as an epic and lyric poet Kalidasa was the most eminent dramatist as well. Of his three famous dramas, Sakuntala, Vikramorvasi, and Malavikagnimitra, the first two narrate the amorous adventures of two famous legendary kings while the third is related with a historic personality of the Sunga period (second century BC).

Being a Palace drama of love and intrigue Shakuntala tells the story of the romance of the king Dushyanta and the daughter of a celestial nymph (apsara). The second play Vikramorvasi (Urvasi won by valor) deals with the Rig Vedic story of the Pururvas and the nymph Urvasi, in which Pururvas rescue Urvasi from demons and leave her due to Indra’s summons but finally reunites with her by the grace of all gods. The third drama Malavikagnimitra revolves round the court room scene of king Agnimitra of Vidisa.

Harsha of Kanauj and Thaneshwar (seventh century) is the author of two plays: Ratnavali (Pearl Necklace) reflects the court life of the age: and the Naganada – a sensational story in a Buddhist setting.

Bhavabhuti, the eminent dramatist of the eighth century, was a Brahman native of Ujjain who enjoyed the patronage of yaso-verman of Kannauj. He wrote three dramas which are unique in character, as they differ from the earlier dramas in many ways. His dramas as, Vidusakas (jesters) are absent, entirely lack the comic element. The most popular of his plays is Malti-Madhava, that tells the love story of Madhava, a young student and Malti, daughter of a minister at the Ujjain court. The other two dramas are Mahaviracharita (the adventures of a great hero) and Uttara-rama-charita (Later Adventures of Rama). Mahaviraracharita is based on the Ramayana with slight differences, and Uttara-rama-charita is more of a dramatic poem than a play.

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Visakhadatta, another famous dramatist, has authored two dramas: the Mudrarakshiasa (the signet ring of Rakshas) and Devi-Chandraguptani. Mudrarakshasa is a play of political conspiracy, full of action and sustained interests. The plot of the drama revolves round the personality of Chanakya, the Brahman diplomat, and his attempt to win over the former minister Rakshasa, of the Nandas. Two other plays of Visakhadatta are Devichandragupta and Abhisurikavanchitaka.

A few important dramas which survived between AD 800-1100 include the Venisamhara (Binding of the Hair in a Braid) by Bhatta Narayan. The plot of this drama is based on an ancient from the Mahabharata. The main theme of the drama is formed around the dragging of Draupadi by Dshusasana by her hair and her vow never to braid her hair until again until the insult is avenged.

In the ninth century, Rajasekhar, probably the last of the great Hindu dramatists, was noted for his grace and fluency of diction; he wrote several dramas. The Karapuramanjari (‘the camphor cluster’), most probably rajsekhar’s first play written entirely in Prakrit, was composed and staged at the instance of his wife Avanti Sundari.

The three other important dramas of the period are the Viddhasalabhanjika (‘Pierced Statue’), the Balaramyana (‘Little Ramayana’), and the Balabharata (‘Little Bharata’). These dramas are based on earlier works and have obvious traces of Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti and harsha.

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The Viddhasalabhanjika resembles, on several points, with the Ratnavali of Harsha. The Balaramayana, most probably the longest Indian drama, elaborates the story of Rama from his befrothal to Sita down to their return to Ayodhya. The Balabharata describes the events narrated in Mahabharata from the wedding of Draupadi down to the exit of the Pandavas for the forest. A drama, named Chandakausika (Angry Kausika) was authored by the poet Vishnusvara, probably in the 10th century Ad under king Mahipala of Kannauj.

Among the few other dramas of the eleventh and twelfth centuries include the Hanumana – Sataka (‘play of Hanumana’). Hanumana Sataka, composed by Damodara Mishra who lived at the court of Bhoja – king of Malwa in the early part of the eleventh century, is a disconnected piece that deals with the adventures of Rama and his companion Hanumanat. Another well known drama of this time is Prabodha – Chandrodaya (‘Rise of the Moon of Knowledge’). It is an allegorical play of theological – philosophical purport written by Krishna Mishra. The drama’s object is to glorify the Vedanta philosophy and to inculcate the worship of Vishnu.

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The Bhakti Movement of the Medieval Age

Saivism: Origin, Principles, and Kinds

The Bhakti Movement of the Medieval Age

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The Bhakti Movement, one of the most remarkable features of the medieval age, remained influential for many centuries. This movement has in fact inscribed deep impact on modern Hinduism.

Different Opinions on the Source of the Bhakti Movement

Different opinions have been expressed about the sources of this movement. Some well known European scholar historians of their time like Grierson and Weber propound the view that the idea of Bhakti as a means to get salvation has been taken by the Hindus from Christianity. They also have expressed that the idea of Bhakti as the monotheistic doctrine of Hinduism too has been borrowed from Christianity.

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However, no contemporary modern scholar consents with these views as another idea replaced this one; this new idea claimed that it was the influence of Islam on Hinduism directly or indirectly that caused the Bhakti Movement of the medieval age. There were some scholars who even suggested that the monotheistic doctrine of Shankracharya was influenced by Islam.

However, some scholars have pointed out that the Bhakti Movement has traditionally been accepted as an influential/social reformation in Hinduism that catered an individual focused, that is monotheistic approach, alternative way for attaining spirituality/salvation without paying any heed to one’s caste, birth or gender.

But post modern historians have tried to establish what they call the more rational approach, that the Bhakti Movement was +revival, reworking and re-contextualization of those ancient traditions which were propounded by the traditions described in detail in Vedic literature. According to them the scriptures of the Bhakti Movement are the Bhagvad Gita, Bhagvat Purana and Padam Purana. Ancient texts such as Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad and the Bhagvad Gita mention term Bhakti.

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Bhakti: a movement within Hinduism

The Bhakti Movement, de facto, was a movement within Hinduism itself. Hinduism propogates that there are three ways to attain salvation (Moksha): Jnan (Knowledge); Karma (Duty) and Bhakti (Devotion). Preachers and saints belonging to Hindu religion emphasized at different times the one, the other or the third one.

During the medieval period Hindu saints and preachers began to emphasize Bhakti as a means to attain Moksha that became the cause of spread of the Movement. According to some important scholar historians, it would be improper to claim that the Bhakti Movement was entirely a new movement within Hindusim.

These scholars mention that in the sixth century BCE the Bhagvad Movement that took birth along with Buddhism and Jainism but at that time the Movement failed as it could not gain strength. It, however, got popular during the medieval age and resulted in the development of the Bhakti Movement. The fact is that the Bhakti Movement swept over north and east India from the 15th century onwards and got to its zenith between 15th and 17th century CE.

As the Bhakti Movement was inspired by various poet-saints with a wide range of philosophical positions, it grew around different gods and goddess, such as Vishnu (Vaishnavism), Shiva (Shaivism), Shakti goddess (Shaktism).

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Saints of the Bhakti Movement

The saints of this Movement gave stress to certain common and certain principles: none of them linked themselves to any particular social or religious sect and none of them ever attempted to establish a new religion. Most of these saints had no blind, that is unreasoned, faith in any religious text and did not have any belief in any priestly rituals.

The saints of the Bhakti Movement believed in one God who could be called by different names such as Rama, Krishna, Shiva or Allah. They were against caste system and idol worship and emphasized that the Bhakti is the only names to attain salvation (Moksha).

The saints of the Bhakti Movement preached in the regional languages of the people; they preached the idea, that ‘God could be achieved only by the Grace of God that itself could be achieved only by one’s own effort’, in simple language in prose or poetry or prayers.

It was during the medieval period of Indian history that the phrase ‘the Bhakti Movement’ started to appear with some recognition as different saints gave their message to the people at different times and different places. One name that became famous and flourished in the early years of the twelfth century was that of Ramanuja who believed in Saguna Brahmana (God). He allowed even Sudras to visit temples on fixed days within a year and made them believe that they could attain moksha through Bhakti.

Another famous saint of 12th century was Nimbarka who was a devotee of Radha-Krishna. One another prominent saint who flourished in 13th century was Madhavacharya. He was a devotee of Lakshmi Narayan. Though these saints were pioneers of the Bhakti Movement, they failed to popularize it among the masses.

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Important saints of the Bhakti Movement

Ramananda

Though Ramananda was a Brahmin, he welcomed people of all castes within his sect. the credit of making the Movement popular among general masses goes to Ramananda. He gave equal status to women too. His twelve disciples carried his message further and made the movement very popular in the larger part of north India.

Kabir

Kabir, the most famous disciple of Ramananda, was picked up, as he was left by his widow mother after his birth, by a Muslim weaver who brought him up. Kabir was a devotee of Rama, but he staunchly believed in the unity of God and he never believed in idol worship or any physical symbol of God: Kabir famously said “Pawan (Pathar) puje Hari Milay to main pujun pahar (mountain).”  That is enough to say about his belief. He was against any form of rituals, caste system and differences of religion. In fact Kabir’s beliefs, thoughts, philosophy of life or any other things in which he believed are recorded in verse form in a book named Gudari, that is of course a very enlightening one. Kabir was a householder saint who got immense popularity among Hindus and Muslims. Even in this modern age, Kabir has not lost its relevance; instead some of his thoughts are now part of our Constitution too.

There are many important poets other than these two most famous propounder the Movement which need separate treatment as their contributions cannot and should not be penned down as a passing reference.

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Saivism: Origin, Principles and Kinds

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The origin of Saivism may be traced to, as the scholar-historian M.N. Das says, much earlier times that of Vaisnavism, however, both cults have been mentioned by Megasthenes in the fourth century BC. Some historians are firm in their opinion that Saivism in some form of other was common among the non-Aryans.

As a separate religious sect Saivism, with its own philosophy, may be traced to the Pasuputa form mentioned in the Mahabharata. In the Mahabharata the systems of Sankhya, Yoga, Panchtantra and Veda are also mentioned. Patanjali, and not only Megasthenes, in his Mahabhashya, has mentioned Siva-bhagvatas and Images of Siva and Skanda.

According to the Bhashyakara, the devotees of Siva used to carry an iron lance (ayah, sulikah) as the symbol of their deity. This ayah or Sulikah in its structure looked like the trishula (the iron trident). Among the devotees the practice of penance and other dhuta (rites) were prevalent.

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Till this time, the practice of Linga Worship had not come into existence, so people worshipped Siva and his two sons Skanda and Visakha. In the process and with the time images of Siva,Skanda and Vaisakha became a source of livelihood for their keepers (jivikarthe).

Saivism, the theistic sect, is mentioned in the Mahabharata as being prominent and widespread among the people. In this epic, the characteristics of Shiva are distinctly defined, rather elaborated, and include  some new features besides that of Vedic-Rudra that is supposed to be the pioneer of Siva-Saivism.

In the literature of the Sangam period too, in the South, Siva has been mentioned as the greatest of Gods.

References of Saivism in the Tamil country have been made in detail, in the two classics Silappadikaram and Manemekhala; these two classics are generally assigned to the first centuries of the Christian Era.

It is presumed that the phallic figure of Siva, as forms of the God, were at first enshrined in the main sanctum of the Siva temples but later on its became the great custom to place the Siva-linga (the phallic form) alone as the object of worship. The earliest figure of Siva is the famous Gudimallam linga near Renigunta, Madrass (now Chennai); this five feet high phallic symbol has on it a two-armed figure of Siva who is holding a ram in his right hand and a water vessel and battle axe in the left and standing on the shoulders of a malformed dwarf.

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Principles of Saivism

The fundamental concept of Saivism, based on a scientific and philosophical plank, is that ‘a changing cosmic force destroys as well as reproduces the universe’. Siva does not appear as an incarnate, although it has been mentioned in the Vayu and the Linga Puranas that Siva incarnated himself as a Brahmacharin by the name of Lakulin and had four pupils (Shishyas)’ namely, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurusha and Maitreya. The Pasuputa School, founded by Lakulin, has been mentioned in the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata.

According to the philosophy of Saivism, Lord represents the force that rules the universe. It is the Lord who produces and destroys and therefore effects a change. The union of Purusha and Prakriti in an unceasing process, continually revealing itself in individuals who must have a beginning and an end. The Lord id both Creator and Destroyer.

Siva is described, on the basis of the nature of his activities, as a great ascetic and as a personification of the forces of nature. And not only this, Siva has been also identified with Time (Mahakala) and Death (Mrityu). Siva is, as presiding over procreation, Ardhanarishvara, half man, and half woman. He is Mahadeva, the Great God, Hara the seizer, Bhairava  the terrible, Bhavesa the lord of the world, Pasupati,  the lord of cattle, symbolizing human souls.

Siva  is  described as a powerful, wrathful and fierce but generous and bountiful God; one who spares nothing when pacified, and confers boons on his devotees.

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Types of Saivism

Saivism in the North

The Pasupata, the earliest set of saivism referred in the Mahabharata, is linked to the early stages with the ‘Lord of Cattle’ but later on with the lord (pati) who helps his creatures (pasu) in attaining freedom from bondage (pasa).

The coins of the Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian and Kushana rulers depict the god Siva in human from who is reclining on his sacred bull, the Nandi. The popularity of saivism and its impact on Kushanas is quite evident from the fact that Wima Kadphses, a Kushan ruler, styled himself as Maheshvara ( a devotee of Mahesa, another name for Lord Siva).

From the sculptures as well as from inscriptions of the Gupta Period it becomes evident that the worship of Siva in his human from along with Uma Parvati  was in practice. A sculpture from Mathura, belonging to the period of late Kushana, shows Shiva  and Parvati  standing against Nandi.

Besides the Gupta rulers, saivism was also patronized by Sasanka of Bengal,  the rulers of Pushpabhuti dynasty of Thaneshvajrkanauj  and the Maitrakas of Valabhi. The Huna king Mihirakula was also a Saivite.

The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang in the middle of the seventeenth century AD has made several references to the cult of the Pasupatas and to the temples of Mahesvara at which the Pasupatas worshipped. The sect consisted of bairagis (ascetics) who besmeared their bodies with ashes, as well as householders, all of them being devotees of Siva.

The sects into which Saivism seems to have merged in later times were based upon scientific methods of redemption, with the advancement of religious, and philosophical thought linked with saivism.

Saivism in the South (India)

Saivism in the southern part of India flourished during the sixth century AD. Saivism was patronized by the Pallava rulers of the Deccan as well the Chalukyas and the Rashivakutas. The saivsim,  that prevailed in the south, was of the ordinary kind in which the praises of siva was sung in the Devaran (houses of God) in fervent devotion.

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The system of philosophy linked to saivism was developed slightly later. The Periyapurana provides an account of sixty-three bhaktas (devotees) of Siva resembling Alvaras of the Vaishnavas. The Sangal literature mentions Siva and his accomplishments, while the Silappadikaram refers the panchakshora (the five letters of the mantra ‘Namah Sivaya’).

Saivism got great encouragement from life and work of Sankara, a spiritual genius, who was born in Kerala at Kaladi about the year AD 788. Sankara, although he was the greatest exponent of Advaita Vedanta, composed various hymns in praise of Siva, the God of gods.

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Sikhism – An Introduction to Sikh Religion

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Sikhism had its origin in the teachings of Guru Nanak (1460-1539) who preached a message of truth and peace and advocated a simple monotheistic faith. Guru Nanak, before his death, nominated one of his disciples as Guru so that he could continue to spread his teachings.

The term Sikhism has its origin in the Punjabi word Sikh which literal meaning is a ‘disciple’ or a ‘learner’. Sikhism as a religion originated in Punjab during the 15th century. It is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak and the ten successive Sikh gurus after him. The development of Sikhism was closely linked with the institution of Guruship.

After the death of tenth Guru, Guru Govind Singh, Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Scripture, was made the literal incarnation of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture’s words serve as the spiritual guru for Sikhs. It was Guru Govind Singh himself who decreed in 1708 that the Guru Granth Sahib would be the final and perpetual Guru of the Sikhs.

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Philosophy and teachings of Sikhism

The essence of the teachings of Sikhism can be summed up in the words of Guru Nanak: “Realization of Truth is higher than all else. High still is truthful living”. The teachings stress the principle of equality of all human beings and reject discrimination on the basis of creed, caste, and gender.

According to the teachings of Guru Nanak, living an “active, creative, and practical life” of truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity is above abstract truth, and the ideal man is one who “establishes the union with God, knows his will, and carries out that will”. Guru Nanak also established the langar system , communal kitchen, to demonstrate the need to share and have a sense equality between all people. This langar system (common free kitchen maintained by voluntary offerings) became popular and countries till date. It encouraged social equality in the panth and became a source of Sikh unity and solidarity.

The Concept of God in Sikhism

In Sikhism the concept of God is Vahiguru-shapeless, timeless, and sightless (unable to be seen with the physical eyes): nirankar, akaal and alakh. It has been stated in the Guru Granth Sahib that “God” is omnipresent and infinite with power over everything and is denoted by the term Ik Onkar. Sikhs believe that all that existed before creation was “God” and God’s hukum (will or order).

God, according to Sikhism, is known as Ik Onkar, the one Supreme Reality or the all-saturating spirit-another name for god. It is also Akaal Purkh, that is beyond time and space, and Nirankar meaning without form.

According to Guru Nanak, the understanding of Akaal is beyond the power of human beings, but at the same time not wholly unrealizable. Akaal is sarav viapak (omnipresent) in all creation and visible everywhere to those who are spiritually awakened. Nanak emphasized that God must be seen from “the inward eye”, or the “heart”, of a human being. Nanak stressed the revelation through meditation.

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The opening line of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Mul Mantra, mentions Ik Onkar: “There is but one all-pervading spirit, and truth is its name! It exists in all creation; it does not fear; it does not hate; it is timeless and universal and self-existent, you will come to know it through seeking knowledge and learning!”

The Timeless Truth of Sikhism

According to Guru Nanak the ultimate purpose of human life is to re-link with Akaal (the timeless entity) in which egotism is the biggest obstacle. In Sikhism, the influence of ego, anger, agreed, attachment and lust are known as five thieves and believed to be particularly distracting. It is believed in Sikhism that remembrance of nam (the Name of the God) leads to an end of egotism.

The teachings of Sikhism emphasis simran that is the meditation on the words of the Guru Granth Sahib, that can be uttered musically through Kirtan or internally through Nam Japo as a process to feel God’s presence and to get command over the ‘Five Thieves’.

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The followers of Sikhism believe that the world at present is going through a state of Kali Yuga (Age of Darkness) because it is being led by the love and attachment to Maya. The fate of those people who are weak enough to become the victim of ‘Panj Chor’ (Five Thieves) is separation from God and situation can be remedied only through the relentless devotion.

Maya or illusion

Maya, defined as “unreality” or illusion, is considered as one of the kernel distractions from the search of God and salvation. However, Guru Nanak stressed maya as not an example of the unreality of the world, but of its values.

Service and Action in Sikhism

Guru Granth Sahib teaches that seva (selfless service) and charitable works enable the devotee, the follower of the panth, to suppress or remove the ego. One of the main teachings of Sikhism is that meditation is unfruitful without service and action. According to Sikhism, service takes three forms: “Tan”-physical service; “Man”-mental service (such as to study for helping others); and “Dhan”-material service. Guru Nanak emphasized Kirat Karo: that a Sikh should balance work, worship, and charity and should defend the rights of all human beings. They are inspirited to follow a Chardi kala, that is optimistic–resilence, view of life: Sikh teachings also emphasize the concept of sharing-vand-chakko-by distributing free food at Sikh gurudwaras, that is popularly known as langar, imparting charitable donations, and working for the good of the community and the society s a whole.

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The Gandhara Art

Saivism: Origin, Principles, and Kinds

The Gandhara Art

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The Gandhara Art, justifying its name, is localized to a particular region in the north-west within a definite period and of a particular material. It is also known as the Graceo-Buddhist art. On the one hand in its origin, it is considered to be a blend of Graceo-Roman and Indian forms that for a span from the 2nd century to the 4th century AD provided the way to a definitely classical style. However, this major Roman, Palmyrene style was lost in the last phase of Graceo-Buddhist art in a fully Indian type of sculpture resembling to the work of the Gupta period.

On the other hand, Gandhara art is considered iconographically to be a local phase of Hellenistic, not Roman art. It ascended from the art of the Greek period in Afghanistan and the Punjab. It is also considered as an eastern extension of Hellenistic civilization blended with Indian elements or most probably a western extension of Indian culture.

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The Hellenistic motifs observed in the Gandhara art are the Persepolitan capital, crenellation and fantastic monsters like the Sphinx and gryphon. The other major aspects of Hellenistic art comprise forms like the Atlantic, garland bearing erotes, and semi-human creatures like the centaur, triton, and hippocamp. These forms were introduced by the Romanised Eurasian artists in the service of the Kushana monarchs.

Impact of Rome

That there was an intimate cultural relationship between India and Rome and that there was Rome’s impact on the Gandhara art can be substantiated by the presence of foreign objects that include the statue of Hippocrates and Dionysius, bronze Heracles, steatite plaques or cosmic dishes with erotic scenes popularly called toilet trays, Syrian glass and Roman Metal and Stucco sculptures. It can be inferred that foreign influence was strong in the earlier phase which gradually receded. The Buddha image in Greek gradually reduced. The Buddha image in Greek drapery dominates the entire scene of the Gandhara Art.

The Gandhara Bodhisattvas

They are displayed in royal attire with the elaborate head dress and ornaments. Their style in Gandhara is supported to be a blend of techniques. The stiff swallow tail folds of the loin-cloth or dhoti are considered an adaptation of the neo-Attic style of the time of Hadrian in Rome.

The Bodhisattvas figures comprise those of Avalokitesvara, Padmapani, Manjusri and the later Maitreya who is prominent in Gandhara art several statues of this Buddhist divinity, standing, sitting in meditation and in attitudes of protection and contemplation have been found in Gandhara.

Avalokitesvara has the seated image of the Buddha in meditation. This Bodhisattva is marked by the lotus flower in his hand. Among the other Buddhist divinities, Panchaka-Kubera and his consort Hariti also figure prominently in the Gandhara art. This ogress converted to Buddhism is displayed with her children clinging to her.

Besides these, the two Brahmanical divinities, Brahman and Indra (Sakra) are also depicted in Gandhara art but not independently. Some foreign divinities such as Athena-Roma, Hippocrates, Silenus, Parro and Ardoksho, Demeter, Atlantes and the Marine deities are also portrayed. There was a tendency towards Indianisation that can be observed in Amohini Yakshas, Garuda the mythical bird, Yakshas and Yakshis, Kinnars and Gandharvas.

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Role of Architecture

In the context of the architectural sphere, Gandhara art is distinguished by the use of different orders, floral designs, and animal motifs as decoration. The architects who were known as navakarmikas showed their talent in constructing stupas and Viharas and ornamenting these with floral designs.

The famous stupa in the shape of a tower built by Kanishka near Peshawar to a height 700 feet in thirteen storeys, Hiuen-Tsang says, was the greatest architectural achievement of this period. The Corinthian columns, pilasters, and capitals are modified in Gandhara art.

The Corinthian order is presumed to dominate in Gandhara architecture that shows an absence of the Doric and Ionic types. The type of masonry that is used in the buildings at Taxila points to the time of the formation of the structures.

Gandhara art: a controversial subject

In the context of its chronology, the Gandhara art continues to be a controversial subject. The Foreign impact is clearly evident as it is apparent in the Apollo-faced figure of the Buddha, chiton, and himation in dress, in the Corinthian orders and floral designs and also in the depiction of some foreign divinities.

They might indicate to an earlier phase of strong Hellenistic impact, dating roughly from AD 140-240, from the time of the accession of Kanishka to the throne to the end of the Kushana dynasty.

The other three phases are assumed to be from AD 240-300, 300-400 and 400-460, with Sassanian impact in the second, Indian influence from Mathura in the third and Sassanian influence again in the last. This classification, however, is problematical and arbitrary. Nonetheless, it appears certain that Kanishka’s companionship with Gandhara art has to be tracked to its blooming stage rather than to its beginning or its end. Despite the Western impact, Gandhara art continued to flourish distinctly in India with the Buddha and Buddhism dominating it comprehensively.

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