India played an important role in the firth of Bangladesh as an independent nation in 1971. The foundation of deep and close India-Bangladesh relations was laid down by the three agreements signed by them during the visit of Indian Prime Minister to Dhaka in March 1972.

• The first was the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation which affirmed the principles of Panchsheel as the guiding principle between the two.
• The second was the trade and commerce agreement which among other things provided for the freedom of trade to the people living areas up to 16 km from the boundary.
• The third was the agreement on the cultural cooperation between the two countries.

Also, India promised to provide an assistance of Rs. 25 crores for the reconstruction of Bangladesh. In 1974, both agreed to demarcate their boundary as India handed over two small enclaves – Dahagram and Angorpota to Bangladesh and, in return got possession of the area of Berubari. This exchange of territory was the need for administrative and transportation convenience. It should be noted that there are still small enclaves on the boundary, which are to be demarketed and exchanged for the sake of convenience of both. In 2011, both countries have agreed to start this process again.

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7 Main Areas of Concern

1. Ganga Water Agreement

The distribution of Ganga water has been the main consent between the two countries. The problem arose in 1975 when India decided to construct Farakka dan on river Ganga to divert its water to river Hoogly to improve the navigability of Calcutta harbour. Bangladesh objected to Indian project on the ground of not getting due share in the water of Ganga. The problem of distribution of Ganga water was resolved by two agreements signed in 1977 and 1996.

The first agreement was known as Farakka Agreement was concluded in 1977. Under the Agreement, India will get 40000 cusecs of water while Bangladesh would get 34000 cusecs of Ganga Water. In the lean season, the share of India would be reduced to 28000 cusecs. Since Bangladesh violated some conditions of this agreement, it came to be suspended in 1982. However, both parties continued with the ad-hoc arrangement till 1996, when new Ganga water agreement signed between the two countries.
The 1996 agreement makes a realistic assessment of an availability of water in Ganga. The main provisions of the agreement are –

1. If the availability of water in Ganga is less than 70000 cusec of water, both countries will share an equal amount of water.
2. If the availability of water between 70000 and 75000 cusec Bangladesh’ share would be 35000 and India would get the rest of the water.
3. If the availability of water is more than 75000 cusec, India would get 40000 cusecs of water and rest of water will go to Bangladesh.

The Ganga water agreement shall be in force for the period fo 30 years. It is one of the major achievements in resolving bilateral issues though mutual consultation, for the  better India-Bangladesh relations. Both countries have decided to continue negotiation to develop an understanding with respect to use of water in other rivers.

2. Chakma Refugees

Chakma is the Buddhists living in Chittagong hill tract of Bangladesh. In order to avoid discrimination and prosecution in Bangladesh, they have been coming to the Indian State of Tripura. India has requested Bangladesh to take back these refugees, but the response has not been encouraging. Finally, two countries sign and agreement in 1997, by which Bangladesh has agreed to take back all 50000 Chakma refugees. By now all Chakma refugees have been taken back by Bangladesh.

3. Barbed Wire Fencing in the Border

India and Bangladesh share a border of 3200 km, which is not properly guarded on all places. In order to check the infiltration of illegal immigrants, India decided to fix barbed wire fencing along the entire border, which was objected to by Bangladesh. However, India continued with fencing, which is now complete.

Must Read: Bangladesh: Background

4. Teen Bigha Corridor

Teen Bigha is a 178 meter long and 85-meter wide corridor along the Indo-Bangladesh border. Bangladesh demanded it because it facilitates the movement between two areas of Bangladesh lying on both sides of this corridor. India decided to hand over this corridor to Bangladesh in 1992 on the basis of the perpetual lease, but India will retain sovereignty over this corridor and Indian citizen will have freedom of movement in this corridor. The transfer of this corridor fulfils the longstanding demand of Bangladesh.

5. Sanctuary of India Ultra Elements

Some ultra elements and members of outlawed organizations active in North-East parts of India have found safe sanctuary in Bangladesh. India has been insisting of handing over such elements due to security reasons. But successive Bangladeshi governments have not obliged India. However, when Awami League came to power, India raised this issue. Consequently, the present government handed over in 2009 some of the top ULFA activists, who found safe sanctuary in Bangladesh. This has helped in the improvement of India-Bangladesh relations.

6. Development Partnership

Bangladesh is one of the four Least Developed Countries (LDCs) of South Asia. Besides extending all benefits and concessions given by India to all LDCx, India has been a dominant partner in the development of Bangladesh. Both started Dhaka-Kolkata rail service named as “Maitri Express” in 2008 after a gap of 43 years.

7. Recent High-Level Visits

Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina visited India in January 2010 and the two countries signed five agreement including cooperation on drug trafficking and criminal matters. ULFA terrorists were handed over to India subsequent to this agreement. Indian PM Manmohan Singh visited Bangladesh in September 2011 and both countries signed a framework agreement on development cooperation and another agreement on the exchange of enclaves and demarcation of remaining patch of the boundary.

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A thunderstorm is a storm with lightning and thunder. It’s produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, usually producing gusty winds, heavy rain and sometimes hail. The basic ingredients used to make a thunderstorm are a moisture, unstable air, and lift. Moisture needs to form clouds and rain. Heated air expands rises and forms clouds.

Thunderstorms can occur year-round and at all hours. But they are most likely to happen in the spring and summer months and during the afternoon and evening hours. It is estimated that there are around 1,800 thunderstorms that occur across our planet every day.

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Lightning

Lightning is a bright flash of electricity produced by a thunderstorm. All thunderstorms produce lightning and are very dangerous. Lightning kills and injures more people each year than hurricanes or tornadoes; between 75 to 100 people.

What causes lightning?

Lightning is an electric current. Within a thunder cloud way up in the sky, many small bits of ice (frozen raindrops) bump into each other as they move around in the air. All of those collisions create an electric charge. After a while, the whole cloud fills up with electrical charges. The positive charges or protons form at the top of the cloud and the negative charges or electrons form at the bottom of the cloud.

Since opposites attract, that causes a positive charge to build up on the ground beneath the cloud. The grounds electrical charge concentrates around anything that sticks up, such as mountains, people, or single trees. The charge coming up from these points eventually connects with a charge reaching down from the clouds and – zap – lightning strikes!

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What causes thunder?

Thunder is caused by lightning. When a lightning bolt travels from the cloud to the ground it actually opens up a little hole in the air, called a channel. Once then the light is gone the air collapses back in and creates a sound wave that we hear as thunder. The reason we see lightning before we hear thunder is because light travels faster than sound!

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Hail

Hail is created when small water droplets are caught in the updraft of a thunderstorm. These water droplets are lifted higher and higher into the sky until they freeze into ice. Once they become heavy, they will start to fall. If the smaller hailstones get caught in the updraft again, they will get more water on them and get lifted higher in the sky and get bigger. Once they get lifted again, they freeze and fall. This happens over and over again until the hailstone is too heavy and then falls to the ground.

If Lightning is nearby

If you see dark clouds, then lightning could be present, but the best thing you can do is to listen for thunder. If you hear thunder, then you need to go indoors or get in a car. Don’t be outside, where lightning could strike! If your hair stands on end or your skin starts to tingle, lightning may be about to strike. Get down on your hands and knees and keep your head tucked in. Do not lay flat, because it can give lightning a better chance of strike you.

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The North East of India is made up of seven separate states and is the most tribal region of India. Northeast India is the eastern-most region of India connected to East India via a narrow corridor squeezed between Nepal and Bangladesh.

The North East of India comprises the contiguous Seven Sister States—Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura—and the Himalayan state of Sikkim.

These states cover about 7 percent of India’s total area. The northeastern states, having 3.8% of India’s total population, are allotted 25 out of a total of 543 seats in the Lok Sabha This is 4.6% of the total number of seats.

All the seven states are members of the North East Council, organized on 1st August 1972 and within the Jurisdiction of Guwahati High Court.

Sikkim joined the Indian union through a referendum in 1975 and was recognized as a part of North-East states in the 1990s. Northeast India’s population size is roughly equal to the state of Odisha.

The states are officially recognized in the North Eastern Council (NEC), constituted in 1971 as the acting agency for the development of the eight states. The North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd was incorporated on 9 August 1995 and the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region was set up in September 2001.

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North East India is known for its unique culture, handicrafts, martial arts, and scenic beauty. Problems include insurgency, unemployment, and lack of infrastructure. Since the beginning of the economic liberalization in the 1990s, studies have shown that this region is lagging behind the others in terms of development.

A place renowned for its magical beauty and bewildering diversity, North East India is the home of more than 166 separate tribes speaking a wide range of languages. Some groups have migrated over the centuries from places as far as South East Asia; they retain their cultural traditions and values but are beginning to adapt to contemporary lifestyles. Its jungles are dense, its rivers powerful and rain and thunderstorms sweep across the hills, valleys, and plains during the annual monsoons.

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Each state is a traveler’s paradise, with picturesque hills and green meadows which shelters thousands of species of flora and fauna. In addition, the states provide scope for angling, boating, rafting, trekking, and hiking. Besides, there are a number of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks where rare animals, birds, and plants which will surely provide the fascinating insight to the visitors.

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Wildlife Corridors, which maintain biodiversity concede populations to interbreed, better long-term genetic viability and cater access to larger habitats, are very important because they increase the effective amount of habitat that is procurable for these species. This is particularly important for migratory animals and those having large home ranges like elephants.

However, wildlife corridors need special management practices that can endorse the requirements of the species which use the corridors. These wildlife corridors must be managed with great caution because they are very much defenseless.

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The Coimbatore Forest Division

The Coimbatore district in Tail Nadu is enriched with hills, forests, rivers and wildlife. In the corridors of Coimbatore Forest Division, which comes under the Project Elephant Reserve No.8, elephants can be seen wandering in small herds in Walayar and Bolampathy Valleys, Anaikatti reserve forests, etc.

The Coimbatore Forest Division is a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR); it also forms part of the core zone of the Reserve. The Coimbatore Forest Division passes significant numbers of elephant population and is among the eleven Elephant Reserves in India and one among four in Tamil Nadu.

However, everyone, and not only wildlife lovers, should come to face the truth that elephants presently face danger to their existence because of the loss of habitat, habitat manipulation, anthropogenic pressure and loss of corridors.

The wildlife corridors are responsible for the movements of animals and gene flow amongst the habitats or forests for a better and healthy population of elephants. Loss of wildlife corridors limits the fauna and flora into small pockets of habitats or forests.

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There are, in the Coimbatore Forest Division, six important elephant wildlife corridors are:

Kalkothi – Walyar Corridor

As one of the major wildlife corridors, this corridor commences from Kalkothi (Bolampathy Range) and ends with Chinnapathy of Mannarkad Forest Division via Perumalkoilpathy, Mangalapalayam and Walayar (Coimbatore Range).

In this corridor, most of the areas are undulating terrain. Incessant water sources present in this corridor are Aaimoolai, Surulipadugai, Oritha, Parapathi and Chinnapathy as also some seasonal water sources.

The major menace for this corridor is the extension of agriculture, constructions, indiscriminate water tapping through bore-wells, quarries and because of inter-state railway track.

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Anaikatti – Veerapandi Corridor

Of the wildlife corridors of Coimbatore Forest Division, this corridor is encircled in the north by Periyanaickenplayam in the south by Anuvavi Subramanaya Kail, east by Chinna Thadagam and west by Anaikatti village.

For the elephants, Kodungarai Pallam is the major water source and there are also endless and seasonal water sources available in this corridor. In the Coimbatore Forest Division, the menace to this corridor is the indiscriminate growth development of building constructions in the fringe areas of the corridor.

Kallar – Jaccanari Corridor

Among the wildlife corridors, this important corridor of the Coimbatore Forest Division commences at Kothagiri Road and goes up to Kollar Reserve Forests along the foothills of Jaccanari Mountain bisecting the Mettupalayam – Coonor Highway and Kallar. This is a narrow corriodor having various anthropogenic pressures. Due to the emergence of numerous private educational institutions on the periphery of the forest, elephants have stopped using this corridor that may sound alarming to ecologists.

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Marudamalai – Thanikandy Corridor

This corridor is encircled in the north and south by Coimbatore, on the west by Kerala and on the east by Iruttupallam village in Tamil Nadu. The terrain includes undulating plains and steep and also steep hillocks. The ceaseless water sources available in the area are Vaidhegi falls, Papanasam, Attukal and Paraikinaru. The major threat to this corridor is the expansion of Agriculture in its area.

Kollar – Nelkithurai Corridor

Of the major wildlife corridors, this important corridor of the Coimbatore Forest Division is encircled on the north by a series of hills and on the east by other settlements.

The corridor commences from a point, that is known as first hair pin bend, behind Government Horticulture Garden at Kallar on the way to Ooty and extends goes up to Pillur Reservoir along the banks of Bhavani River.

Here, in this corridor, the movements of elephants are hampered due to the extension of agriculture along the outer sphere of the corridor, and due to which elephant damages the crops severely.

This corridor is the one and only corridor that is the only transit route for elephants to move between Pillur Resreve Forests and Attapady valley from Eastern Ghats.

Fuel wood collection by forest settlements and livestock grazing are posing a great threat to this corridor.

Jaccanari – Vedar Corridor

As one of the important wildlife corridors, this corridor is encircled by sudden escarpment of the Jaccanari Mountain’s on the north and on the east by crop fields. Between the Forest College (Mettupalayam) and Vedar Colony,this corridor is very narrow. It has severe anthropogenic pressure because of which elephants cause brisk depredation. During the dry season elephants get support from the ceaseless Ghandhapallam and Kunukkumadu waterway.

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Biomes are a way to divide the Earth‘s surface. These divisions are based on climate patterns, soil types, and the animals and plants that inhabit an area. There are biome on dry land and in water. Every inch of the Earth’s surface is a part of one or more biomes.

There are a couple of different ways to look at the number of biomes. Some like to divide biomes into five basic types: aquatic, forest, desert, tundra, and grassland. These five types of biome can be further divided by the differences in seasons or animal and plant species.

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Aquatic Biomes

The aquatic biome consists of any part of Earth that is covered with water. This includes freshwater and salt water. The aquatic biome can be further divided into freshwater biomes, marine biomes, wetland biomes, coral reef biomes, and estuaries. These subdivisions are based on the salt content of the water, the aquatic plants that live there, and the aquatic animals that thrive there.

Forest Biome

The forest biome is the largest and has a wide variety of plants, trees, animals, insects, and microscopic organisms. The major characteristic of the forest biome is its trees. About 30% of the Earth is considered a part of the forest biome. The forest biome is subdivided by its climate and types of trees present. These subdivisions are the rainforest biome, temperate biome, chaparral biome, alpine biome, and taiga biome.

Desert Biome

The desert biome has one major, distinguishing characteristic, the fact that it has very little vegetation. The climate is rather extreme depending on its location. The deserts of Africa are extremely hot during the winters and warm throughout the rest of the year. There are also cold deserts such as those in Antarctica. These deserts are extremely cold during the winter and cold during the other seasons.

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Tundra Biome

Tundra biomes are the coldest places on Earth. They are similar to a cold desert except they receive less rainfall and contain different animals and plants. Even though the conditions are harsh, the tundra biome does have plant and animal habitats.

Grassland Biome

The grassland biome is made of rolling hills of various grasses. They receive just enough rain to sustain grass but not enough to grow many trees. There are a few trees that will grow in grasslands but sporadic wildfires keep them under control. There are two types of grassland, the savannas, and temperate grasslands.

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Types of Biomes

There are many different types of biomes on the Earth’s surface. Each biome is unique in that it has its own weather and temperature patterns, plant species, and animal species. It is important to understand the uniqueness of each biome in order to understand why certain animals and plants thrive in one area yet would not be able to survive in another. Biomes are also very sensitive and each has special needs in order to maintain itself. Although there are many types of biome, they each fit into two categories: aquatic biomes and terrestrial biomes.

Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic biomes are those that occur under water. This can be saltwater or freshwater. There is saltwater in the ocean and this is where one would find the ocean biome and the coral reef biome. The shallow part of the ocean that contains coral is a part of the coral reef biome.

The freshwater biome includes areas of land covered in water that contains less than 1% of salt water. This includes rivers, lakes, ponds, and wetlands such as swamps and marshes.

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Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial biomes are those that occur on dry land. These biome differ in their climate, vegetation, and animal life. There are many types of terrestrial biome but the main biomes include tundra biome, desert biome, forest biome, and grassland biome.

• The tundra biome is one of extreme weather conditions. Temperatures often remain very cold and harsh. Only a few plants and animals can survive there.
• The desert biome also has extreme weather conditions. There are two types of deserts, hot deserts, and cold deserts. Both desert types are very dry and receive very little rainfall.
• The forest biome is characterized by its humidity and ample rainfall. The rain allows very tall trees to grow there. There are two types of forest, tropical rainforest, and temperate deciduous forest. These forests are distinguishable by the types of plants and trees that grow there.
• Grasslands have a lot of variety among its plants and animals. The plants that grow there include many types of flowers. The soil in the grassland is very rich in nutrients so it is easy for many plants to survive there. Even though the temperatures in the grassland biome remain pleasant for most of the year, it does experience a dry season. This dry season sometimes results in a drought which makes water scarce for the plants and animals there.

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Topography describes the physical features of an area of land. These features typically include natural formations such as mountains, rivers, lakes, and valleys. Man-made features such as roads, dams, and cities may also be included. Topography often records the various elevations of an area using a topographical map.

Topographical Features

Topography studies the elevation and location of landforms.

• Landforms – Landforms studied in topography can include anything that physically impacts the area. Examples include mountains, hills, valleys, lakes, oceans, rivers, cities, dams, and roads.
• Elevation – The elevation, or height, of mountains and other object, is recorded as part of topography. It is usually recorded in reference to sea level (the surface of the ocean).
• Latitude – Latitude gives the north/south position of a location in reference from the equator. The equator is a horizontal line drawn in the middle of the Earth that is the same distance from the North Pole and the South Pole. The equator has a latitude of 0 degrees.
• Longitude – Longitude gives the east/west position of a location. Longitude is generally measured in degrees from the Prime Meridian.

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Topographical Map

A topographical map is one that shows the physical features of the land. Besides just showing landforms such as mountains and rivers, the map also shows the elevation changes of the land. The Elevation is shown using contour lines.

When a contour line is drawn on a map it represents a given elevation. Every point on the map touching the line should be the same elevation. On some maps, numbers on the lines will let you know what the elevation is for that line.

Methods to Study

There are a number of ways that information is gathered to make topographical maps. They can be divided into two primary methods: direct survey and indirect survey.

Direct survey – A direct survey is when a person on the ground uses surveying equipment, such as levels and clinometers, to directly measure the location and elevation of the land. You have probably seen a surveyor along the road sometimes making measurements by looking through a leveling instrument sitting on a tall tripod.

Indirect survey – Remote areas may be mapped using indirect methods. These methods include satellite pictures, images taken from planes, radar, and sonar (underwater).

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Topography uses

Topography has a number of uses including:

• Agriculture – Topography is often used in agriculture to determine how soil can be conserved and how water will flow over the land.
• Environment – Data from topography can help to conserve the environment. By understanding the contour of the land, scientists can determine how water and the wind may cause erosion. They can help to establish conservation areas such as watersheds and wind blocks.
• Weather – The topography of the land can have an impact on weather patterns. Meteorologists use information on mountains, valleys, oceans, and lakes to help predict the weather.
• Military – Topography is also important to the military. Armies throughout history have used information on elevation, hills, water, and other landforms when planning their military strategy.

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